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THE 


RACES  OF  MAN 


And  Their  Distribution 


BY 
A.  C,  HADDON,  Sc.D.,  F.R.S., 

UNIVERSITY    READER   IN   ETHNOLOGY, 
CAMBRIDGE. 


JSlhtstratttr 


* 
J     I 


3f 


NEW  YORK 

Frederick  A.  Stokes  Company, 
Publishers. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

reduction  ...  ...  •••  ...  ix 

e  Basis  of  Classification     ...  ...  ...  1 

Skin-Colour,  2  ;  Hair,  2;  Stature,  3;  Nose,  3; 
Face,  4 ;  Head-Form,  4. 

flnitions  of  race,  people,  tribe,  nation,  ...  6 

Classification  of  Mankind  ...  ...  ...       7,8 

ii3  Main  Physical  Characters  and  Distribution 

of  the  Ulotrichi: —  ...  ...      9-12 

Andamanese,  9 ;  Semang,  9 ;  Negritoes  of  the 
Philippines  or  Aetas,  9 ;  Negrilloes,  9 :  Bush- 
men, 10;  Hottentots,  10;  Negroes:  Western 
Sudanese  or  Nigritian,  Eastern  Sudanese  or 
Nilotic  Negroes,  11 ;  Bantu,  11 ;  Papuans,  11 
Melanesians,  12. 

e  Main  Physical  Characters  and  Distribution 

of  the  Cymotrichi: —  ...  ...     12-16 

Veddas,  12 ;  Jungle  Tribes  of  the  Deccan,  12 ; 
Sakai,  12  ;  Toala,  13 ;  Australians,  13  ;  Dravid- 
ians,  13;  Ethiopians  or  Hamites,  13;  Indo- 
Afghans,  13  ;  Indonesians,  14  ;  Polynesians,  14  ; 
Semites,  14 ;  Mediterraneans,  15 ;  Nordics  or 
Teutonic  Race,  15  ;  Ainu,  15 ;  Alpines  or  Alpine 
Race,  15 :  Cevenole,  Dinaric  or  Adriatic, 
Anatolian  or  Armenian,  16. 

(3  *lain  Physical  Characters  and  Distribution 

of  the  Leiotrichi : —  ...  ...     16-19 

Palseasiatics  or  Eastern  Siberians,  16; 
Tungus,  16;  Koreans,  17;  Mongols,  17;  Turki,  17; 
Ugrians,  17;  Indo-Chinese,  Pareaeans,  or 
Southern  Mongols,  18;  Eskimo,  18;  Palaeo- 
Amerinds,  19 ;  Patagonians,  19 ;  Southern 
Amerinds,  19 ;    Central  Amerinds,  19 :    North- 

™~»A~-.«    A  «*»•*<  r» /-la     1Q.     Wnr+hom    AmprlnHk.     1Q_ 


W.   '    >•;;•*.■       •'.*.  Contents 

*  *  •  •    •    •     t  •  * 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  according  to 

Areas!—-   •«•  ••■  ...  ..,  ^u-j-l^ 

Oceania. 

General  account  of  the  distribution  and  migra- 
tions of  the  Oceanians,  20;  The  Ethnography 
of  the  Australians,  22;  — Papuans  ana 
Melanesians,  24 ;  — Polynesians,  28. 

Africa. 

General  account  of  the  distribution  and  migra- 
tions of  the  Africans,  31 ;  The  Ethnography 
of  the  Negrilloes,  34;  —  Bushmen,  34; 
—Hottentots,  35;  —Negroes,  36;  — Bantus,  38 

Europe. 

General  account  of  the  distribution  of  tht 
Europeans,  40 ;  Physical  characters  and  racial 
elements  in  the  populations  of  Scandinavia,  41  ; 
— British  Isles,  41 ;  — France,  41 ;  — Switzer- 
land,  42;  — Belguim,  42 ;  — Netherlands,  43; 
— Germany,  43;  — Austria,  43;  — Hungary,  43" 
— Russia,  44; — Balkan  States,  45; — Greece,  46 
—Italy,  46  ;  —Spain,  47. 

Asia. 

General  account  of  the  distribution  and  migra- 
tions of  the  Asiatics,  48 ;  The  Ethnography  cf 
the  Ural-Altaians,  52;  — India,  56;  — Assam,  65: 
— Burma,  68 ;  — the  Negritoes  of  Asia,  70 
— Malay  Peninsula,  74  ;  — Borneo,  76. 

America. 

Classification  of  the  Amerinds,  79 ;  Th 
Ethnography  of  the  Eskimo,  80 ;  — North 
Pacific  Tribes,  81 ;  —Tribes  of  the  Pacifi : 
Coast,  83 ;  — Tribes  of  the  Great  Plains,  85 
— Northern  Tribes  of  the  Eastern  Woodlands,  87  , 
—Tribes  of  the  South-west,  88:  —Centra; 
America,  89 ;  — The  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  90; 
— The  Plains  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Orinoco, 
with  Guiana,  93 ;  — Eastern  and  Southern 
Brazil,  97;   — The  Pa-  ~    '      " 

Tierra  del  Fuego,  99. 
Bibliography 
Glossary    ...  •••  •••  ••• 


-ti-i. 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


PAGE 

Plate  I. — Frontispiece,  A  Jicarilla  Apache, 
Athapascan  stock.  Note  the  typical  profile  and 
lank  hair.  He  is  wearing  a  war  head-dress  with 
a  beaded  frontlet  and  silver  earrings.  There  are 
four  painted  lines  over  the  cheek-bone. 

Plate  II. — Two  Koiari  Men  of  the  village  of 
Makabiri ;  typical,  ulotrichous,  bearded  Papuans 
of  the  central  district  of  British  New  Guinea  ...     11 

(a)  Height  l'692m.  (5ft.  6£in.),  cephalic  index  77*2. 

(b)  „       1  '657m.  (5ft.  4fcin.),        „  „     70 

Plate  III. — An  Arab  (Semite)    ...  ...  ...     14 

Plate  IV.— An  Ainu  of  the  Saru  river  valley,  Yezo. 
Note  the  non- Mongolian  features,  abundant 
cymotrichous  hair  on  head  and  face  He  is 
wearing  the  ceremonial  fillet,  from  which  two 
squares  of  cloth  depend  on  each  side,  and  a 
wooden  carving  of  a  bear's  head  is  attached  to 
the  front  ...  ...  ...  ...     15 

Plate  V. — An  Old  Chinese  Man  and  a  Young  Boy  ; 
the   latter   exhibits   pronounced   "Mongolian" 
features.     Nanking  ...  ...  ...     18 

vii. 


viii.  List  of  Plates 

Plate  VI. — A  Northern  Australian,  with  curly  hair, 
a  broad  nose,  through  the  septum  of  which  is 
inserted  a  long  bone  (probably  a  wing  bone  of  a 
wild  swan) ;  the  body  and  arms  are  decorated 
with  cicatrices  and  cheloids  ...  ...     2$ 

Plate  VII. — A  Maori  Chief  (Polynesian),  whose 
face  is  decorated  with  moko,  or  fine  grooves 
chipped  into  the  skin,  pigment  being  inserted 
during  the  operation  of  cutting.  In  true 
tattooing  the  design  is  formed  by  minute 
punctures  ...  ...  ...  ...     28 

Plate  VIII. — A  Negrillo,  or  African  Pygmy,  from 
the  Kasai  Valley,  Congo.  Note  the  ulotrichous 
hair,  broad  flattish  nose,  and  thick  lips ;  the  face 
and  head  are  broad  ...  ...  ...     34 

Plate  IX. — An  Eskimo.  Note  the  straight  hair,  and 
greater  development  of  the  "  Mongolian  fold  " 
in  the  left  eye       ...  ...  ...  ...     80 

Plate  X. — Two  Patagonians,  one  holding  a  lasso 
and  the  other  a  bolas;  the  fillet  is  very 
characteristic        ...  ...  ...  ...  100 

Plates  I,  IV,  VIII,  IX  and  X  are  from  photographs  taken  at 
the  St.  Louis  Exposition,  1904,  by  the  staff  of  the  Field 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  Chicago,  and  given  to  me  by  my 
friend,  Dr.  G.  A.  Dorsey,  with  full  permission  to  reproduce 
them. 

Plate  II  is  from  a  photograph  taken  on  the  Cambridge 
Expedition  to  Torres  Straits,  etc.,  1898. 

Plates  III,  VI,  and  VII  are  from  purchased  photographs. 

Plate  V  is  from  a  photograph  taken  by  my  friend,  Mr.  J. 
Thomson. 


INTRODUCTION 


It  is  an  extremely  difficult  matter  to  give  in  a  very 
short  space  a  well-balanced  account  of  the  races  and 
peoples  of  mankind,  for  it  is  impossible  to  deal  adequately 
with  the  subject  in  a  small  book ;  and,  furthermore,  our 
information  is  far  from  complete.  The  present  effort 
must  necessarily  be  open  to  grave  criticism  from  many 
standpoints. 

This  little  work  falls  naturally  into  two  parts.  The 
first  deals  with  some  of  the  physical  characters  employed 
in  classification,  and  a  grouping  of  the  main  stocks 
according  to  those  characters,  together  with  their 
geographical  distribution.  The  effects  of  European 
colonisation  are  entirely  omitted. 

The  second  part  is  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the 

five   large   areas,   Oceania,   Africa,    Europe,   Asia,    and 

merica.     Each  section  is  preceded  by  a  sketch  of  the 

stribution  of  the  races  and  peoples  in  the  area,  and  a 

pothetical  sketch  of  some  of  the  larger  movements  of 

pulation  that  may  have  taken  place.    Then  follows  a 

ief  account  of  some  of  the  more  interesting  peoples  of 

at  area.    The  selection  was  not  easy,  and  perhaps  too 

ix. 


x.  Introduction. 

much  space  has  been  given  to  the  more  backward 
peoples,  but  the  difficulty  of  dealing  in  a  satisfactory 
manner  with  the  cultured  peoples  is  very  great,  and  the 
reader  can  find  detailed  information  in  more  ambitious 
works.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  treatment  of  Europe 
is  very  different  from  that  accorded  to  the  other 
continents,  as  it  was  felt  that  a  statement  of  racial 
elements  in  the  population  would  be  more  generally 
useful  than  an  imperfect  summary  of  national 
characteristics.  i 

Those  who  wish  to  advance  further  in  this  study 
should  consult  Professor  A.  H.  Keane's  "  Man,  Past  and 
Present,"  "Ethnology,"  and  "The  World's  Peoples"; 
Dr.  J.  Deniker's  "The  Races  of  Man";  and  Professor 
F.  Ratzel's  "The  History  of  Mankind"  (English 
translation). 

The  omission  of  references  is  rightly  open  to  serious 
criticism,  but  it  was  felt  that  they  would  have  to  be  so 
numerous  as  to  unduly  increase  the  size  of  the  book. 
The  short  Bibliography  at  the  end  will,  however,  indicate 
to  the  serious  student  some  of  the  more  important  books 
to  consult. 

Nearly  all  the  special  terms  employed  are  explained 
in  the  text  on  their  first  occurrence,  but  for  the 
convenience  of  the  reader  a  short  Glossary  has  been 
added. 


The  Races  of  Man. 


THE   BASIS  OP  CLASSIFICATION 

Various  methods  are  employed  in  the  attempt  to  group 
together  different  human  communities  and  to  distinguish 
between  the  races  of  mankind :  these  may  be  briefly  de- 
scribed as  physical,  cultural  and  linguistic.  The  fact  that 
languages  may  be  readily  borrowed  by  one  people  from 
another,  renders  linguistics  unsatisfactory  as  a  basis  for 
classification.  It  certainly  proves  the  contact  of  peoples, 
but  does  not  necessarily  imply  racial  affinity.  We  must 
therefore  rank  it  as  a  subsidiary  method.  A  classification 
based  on  culture  may  be  of  interest  to  the  sociologist,  but 
it  is  obviously  one  which  can  have  no  prime  importance  in 
regard  to  genetic  relationship,  though  it  may  indicate  the 
influence  of  peoples  upon  one  another.  There  remain, 
therefore,  the  physical  characters  of  different  peoples 
upon  which,  as  a  foundation,  a  classification  of  mankind 
can  most  satisfactorily  be  erected. 

The  physical  characters  which  can  be  employed  in  the 
grouping  or  discrimination  of  peoples  are  mainly  of  two 
kinds ;  those  which  are  readily  apparent,  and  those  which 
require  more  minute  observation,  usually  with  the  assist- 
ance of  instruments.  The  most  obvious  of  the  superficial 
characters,  such  as  stature,  skin-colour,  character  of  the 
hair,  shape  of  the  nose,  and  the  like,  have  been  recognised 
from  time  immemorial.  Practically  all  peoples  look  upon 
their  own  physical  characters  as  constituting  the  normal 
type,  and  consequently  regard  those  that  differ  from 
them  as  being  strange,   and  even   repulsive.    This   is 

1 


.  .       •    « 


2  The  Races  of  Man 

proved  by  the  frequency  with  which  a  people  will  class 
itself  by  a  name  which  signifies  "  men,"  thereby  implying 
that  they  only  are  men,  while  other  peoples  are  designa- 
ted by  them  under  nicknames,  names  of  localities,  or  of 
some  peculiar  habit. 

Skin-Colour. — Very  obvious  is  the  colour  of  the  skin. 
Among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  the  artists  who  decorated 
the  royal  tombs  at  Thebes  (xix.  dynasty)  distinguished 
between  four  races: — (1)  the  Egyptians,  whom  they 
painted  red;  (2)  the  Asiatics  or  Semites,  who  were 
coloured  yellow  ;  (3)  the  Southerns  or  Negroes,  who  were 
naturally  painted  black;  and  (4)  the  Westerns  or  North- 
erns, white.  We  ourselves  speak  loosely  of  white  men, 
yellow  men,  black  men  or  "  niggers,"  red  men,  and  so 
forth.  The  coloration  of  the  skin  is  a  character  of  some 
importance,  but  we  do  not  know  accurately  to  what 
extent  it  can  in  time  be  influenced  by  climatic  or  other 
conditions.  In  the  north  of  Europe  we  certainly  do  find 
a  fair-skinned  population,  but  the  Greenland  Eskimo 
has  a  brownish-yellow  complexion,  generally  tinged  with 
red.  The  very  dark  Negro  of  the  equatorial  forest  does 
not  appear  to  live  under  conditions  very  different  from 
those  of  the  pale  yellow  Punan  of  Borneo,  nor  are  the 
conditions  of  existence  dissimilar  for  the  dark  Fijian  and 
the  relatively  fair  Samoan.  It  does  not  seem  possible  at 
present  to  distinguish  the  relative  importance  of  race  and 
environment  with  regard  to  pigmentation.  Perhaps  when 
once  fixed,  pigmentation  is  a  fairly  constant  character. 

Hair. — On  the  whole,  the  hair  appears  to  be  the  most 
useful  character  in  classifying  the  main  groups  of  mankind. 
Practically  everywhere  outside  Europe  and  parts  of 
Northern  Asia  the  hair  is  black  in  colour,  often  with  a 
reddish,  brownish,  or  bluish  tinge.  In  Europe  we  have 
the  greatest  diversity,  not  only  in  colour,  but  in  character. 
The  three  main  varieties  of  hair  are  the  straight,  wavy, 
and  so-called  woolly.     The  first  is  lank  hair  that  usually 


The  Basis  of  Classification  3 

falls  straight  down,  occasionally  with  a  tendency  to  be- 
come wavy;  it  is  apt  to  be  coarse  in  texture.  The 
second  is  undulating,  or  may  form  a  long  curve  or 
imperfect  spiral  from  one  end  to  the  other,  or  may  be 
rolled  spirally  to  form  clustering  rings  or  curls  a  centi- 
metre (f  in.)  or  more  in  diameter.  The  third  variety  is 
characterised  by  numerous,  close,  often  interlocking, 
spirals  1 — 9  mm.  in  diameter.  These  three  varieties  are 
now  termed  leiotrichous,  cymotrichous,  and  ulotrichous. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  all  intermediate 
conditions  occur  between  these  three  types. 

Stature. — A  commonly  recognised  distinction  is  that 
of  stature;  but  though  it  is  true  that  there  are  certain 
peoples  who  can  be  described  as  tall,  medium,  and 
short,  or  even  as  pygmy,  the  stature  is  apt  to  be  very 
variable  within  certain  limits  among  the  same  people. 
The  average  human  stature  appears  to  be  about  1*675  m. 
(5ft.  6in.).  Those  peoples  who  are  1*725  m.  (5ft.  8in.)  or 
more  in  height  are  said  to  be  tall;  those  below  1*625  m. 
(5ft.  4in.)  are  short,  while  those  who  fall  below  1*500  m. 
(4ft.  11  in.)  are  now  usually  termed  pygmies. 

Nose. — A  feature  that  has  always  attracted  attention 
is  the  nose.  It  may  be  prominent  or  flat,  and  relatively 
to  its  length  (i.e.  from  the  root  to  the  angle  with  the  lip) 
the  wings  may  be  broad  (platyrrhine),  moderate  (mesor- 
rhine),  or  narrow  (leptorrhine). 

We  have  an  interesting  example  of  the  employment  of 
the  above  characters  as  a  means  of  race-discrimination 
in  the  Vedas,  which  were  composed  by  the  poets  of 
the  Aryan  invaders  of  Northern  India  about  1500  B.C. 
The  word  varna,  which  is  now  employed  to  signify  caste, 
is  used  in  the  dual  number,  "two  colours,"  being  the 
white  of  the  Aryans  and  the  black  of  the  Dasyus,  that  is, 
of  the  Dravidian  aborigines,  who  are  elsewhere  called 
"  noseless/  "  black-skinned,"  "  unholy,"  "  excommuni- 
cated    ;   other  texts  dwell  on  their  low  stature,  coarse 


4  The  Races  of  Man 

features,  and  their  voracious  appetite.  It  is  hardly  an 
exaggeration  to  say  that  from  these  sources  there  might 
be  compiled  a  fairly  accurate  anthropological  definition 
of  certain  Dravidian  tribes  of  to-day. 

Face. — The  lower  part jjj^  the  face  may  project  con- 
siderably (prognathous) — this  is  what  is  termed  a  "  low  " 
feature,  or  there  may  be  no  projection  of  the  face 
(orthognathous).  These  characters  are  dependent  on 
the  size  of  thej^ws.  A  flat  and  retreating  forehead  is 
also  a  "  low  "  feature,  but  a  somewhat  bulbous  forehead 
such  as  is  characteristic  of  Negroes  does  not  necessarily 
imply  high  intellectual  ability.  A  straight  .nose,  and  one 
in  which  the  root  is  only  slightly  marked,  so  that  the  line 
of  the  forehead  passes  gently  into  that  of  the  nose, 
constitutes  the  classical  nose  of  Greek  statues.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  this  feature  was  seized  upon  and  ex- 
aggerated by  certain  Greek  sculptors,  the  contours  of  the 
nose  and  forehead  being  alike  falsified,  so  as  to  give 
increased  nobility  to  the  expression.  The  majesty  of  the 
brow  of  Zeus,  the  wielder  of  the  destinies  of  men,  was 
due  to  an  overstepping  of  human  contours,  as  these  in 
their  turn,  in  the  dim  ages  of  the  past,  had  passed  beyond 
the  low  outline  of  the  brute. 

Head- Form. — Less  obvious  is  the  jshape  of  the  head. 
Looked  at  from  above,  some  heads  are  distinctly  narrow, 
while  others  are  very  broad.  The  nature  of  the  hair  and 
the  fashion  of  dressing  it  often  tend  to  obscure  this,  so 
for  a  satisfactory  description  recourse  must  be  had  to 
measurements.  The  measurements  are  rarely  used  by 
themselves,  but  are  employed  to  give  a  ratio  of  the 
breadth  to  the  length,  the  latter  being  taken  at.  100. 
Thus  those  heads  in  which  the  ratio  of  the  breadth  of 
the  skull  to  its  length  falls  below  75  are  termed  dolicho- 
cephalic or  narrow-headed,  those  between  75  and  80 
mesaticephalic  or  medium-headed,  those  exceeding  80 
brachycephalic  or  br 


The  Basis  of  Classification  5 

i 

groups  are  recognised,  the  dolichocephalic  —78,  and  the 
brachycephalic  78  +  .  When  dealing  with  the  skull  only, 
it  is  better  to  speak  of  the  cranial  index,  and  to  reserve 
the  term  cephalic  index  for  the  head  of  the  living; 
roughly  speaking,  the  cephalic  index  is  two  units  higher 
than  the  cranial  index.  The  height  of  the  head  is  a 
character  of  some  importance ;  some  heads  are  high  and 
well  curved,  while  others  are  low  and  flattened. 

There  are  many  other  characters  which  are  employed 
by  physical  anthropologists  which  necessitate  careful 
measurements  on  the  living  or  on  the  skeleton,  and  the 
observation  of  certain  details  of  anatomical  structure; 
for  these  the  reader  is  referred  to  special  works  dealing 
with  physical  anthropology. 

Although,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  the  range  of 
the  variations  of  any  given  feature  is  divided  up  into 
groups  to  which  definite  names  are  applied,  it  must  be 
clearly  understood  that  these  demarcations  are  perfectly 
arbitrary,  and  are  employed  merely  to  facilitate  compari- 
son and  classification.  Man  is  a  very  variable  animal, 
and  being  able  to  travel  long  distances,  a  considerable 
mixture  between  different  peoples  has  taken  place ;  hence 
it  becomes  extremely  difficult  in  some  cases  to  determine 
whether  the  given  modifications  from  the  average  type  are 
due  to  the  inherent  variability  of  man,  to  reaction  to  the 
conditions  under  which  he  is  living  or  has  recently  lived,  or 
to  actual  race-mixture.  These  considerations  necessitate 
caution  in  forming  an  opinion  concerning  the  affinities  of 
any  people,  and  at  the  same  time  they  demonstrate  the 
extreme  difficulty  there  is  in  framing  a  consistent  classi- 
fication of  mankind. 

Unfortunately  there  is  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the 
employment  of  us  such  as  race  tribe,  and  for  the 
minor  divisions  of  a  community,  nor  does  it  seem  possible 


J 


6  The  Races  of  Man 

at  the  present  time  to  bring  all  observers  on  these  topics 
into  line.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  explain 
briefly  the  manner  in  which  such  terms  are  employed  in 
this  book.  As  to  the  term  race,  it  really  seems  impossible 
to  frame  a  satisfactory  definition.  It  is  best  to  confine 
its  use  as  far  as  possible  to  the  main  divisions  of  mankind 
which  have  important  physical  characters  in  common, 
Thus  all  woolly-haired  peoples  (Ulotrichi)  may  be  said  to 
belong  to  one  race;  but  usually  the  Negrilloes,  Bushmen, 
Negroes,  Papuans,  and  others,  are  spoken  of  as  races. 
The  Jews,  although  not  of  absolutely  pure  origin,  are 
generally,  but  from  this  point  of  view  erroneously,  spoken 
of  as  a  race;  again  there  is  no  such  thing  as  an  Bnglish  or 
an  Irish  race. 

A  people  is  a  community  inhabiting  any  given  area 
independent  of  race.  For  example,  the  Andaman 
Islanders  are  a  people  of  pure  race,  while  the  people  of 
Ceylon  belong  to  various  races.  In  some  cases,  where 
racial  mixture  is  suspected,  it  is  better  to  employ  this 
term  rather  than  "race";  thus  it  is  preferable  to  speak 
of  the  Melanesian  peoples  rather  than  of  the  Melanesian 
race. 

A  tribe  may  be  defined  as  a  group  of  a  simple  kind 
occupying  a  circumscribed  area,  having  a  common 
language,  common  government,  and  a  common  action  in 
warfare. 

A  nation  is  a  complex  group  which  may  consist  of 
various  tribes  or  groups,  speaking  different  languages, 
but  united  under  a  common  government  for  external 
affairs.  The  constituents  of  a  nation  usually,  however, 
speak  the  same  language. 


A  Classification  of  Mankind 


A   CLASSIFICATION    OF   MANKIND 

If  we  accept  the  character  of  the  hair  as  a  basis  of 
classification,  we  may  divide  mankind  into  the  following 
groups : —  i 

Ulotrighi  : 

Pygmies: 

Negritoes.  (Andamanese,    Semang   of    the 
Malay  Peninsula  and  Sumatra,  Pygmies 
of  the  Philippines),  and  Negrilloes  of  the 
equatorial  forests  of  Africa. 
Short  and  yellow-skinned  : 

Bushmen  of  South  Africa. 
Hottentots  of  South  Africa. 

Short  or  tall,  and  dark-skinned : 
Negroes  and  Bantu  of  Africa. 
Papuans    and    Melanesians    of    the    West 
Pacific.       * 

CYMOTRiCHi^are  divisible  into  several  main  divisions 
according  to  their  skin-colour;  the  great  majority  are 
dolichocephalic.  . 

Dolichocephalic:  -whMc/w      Imoh\     ■ 

Melanous,  or  dark  group  : 

Pre-Dravidians:  Veddas of  Ceylon;  Kadirs, 
Kurumbas,  Irulas,  and  other  Jungle 
Tribes  of  the  Deccan ;  Sakai  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula  and  Sumatra;  Toalas 
of  Celebes ;  Australians. 

Dravidians  of  the  Deccan. 

Ethiopians  or  Hamites  of  North-East 
Africa. 


v<^  ^ 


y>° 


i  '  u 


8  The  Races  of  Man 

-    Intermediate  shades: 
I  ndo- Afghans. 
Indonesians. 
Polynesians. 
Tawny  white : 
Semites. 

Mediterraneans  of  South  Europe  and  North 
Africa. 
Fair: 

Nordics  of  North  Europe. 
Mesaticephalic  :    w-sdU  His* 

Ainu  of  Japan. 
Brachycephalic :    thecal    Uj&+2 

Alpines    (with    Anatolian     and     Cevenole 
varieties). 
Leiotrichi.     The   straight-haired  groups  of  mankind 
are  mainly  confined  to  Asia  and  America. 

Brachycephalic :  0^€-  !*£<?<?( 

Ural-Altaians :  Palaeasiatics,  Tungus,  Ko- 
reans, Mongols,  together  with  the  modified 
Ugrians  and  Turki;  Indo-Chinese:  Tibetans, 
Himalayans,  Chinese,  most  of  the  natives 
of  further  India  and  Indo-China,  including 
the  Proto- Malays. 
Dolichocephalic  American  Indians: 
Eskimo.  "^ 

Palaeo-  Amerinds. 

r 

Mesaticephalic    or     Brachycephalic    American 
Indians  :         '^*<**. 

Patagonians,  Southern  Amerinds,  Central 

Amerinds,      North  -  Western      Amerinds, 

Northern  Amerinds. 

A  linear  arrangement,  such  as  is  practically  unavoidable 

in  a  book,  can  very  rarely  indicate  biological  affinities;  to 

illustrate  these  a  two-  or  three-dimensional  arrangement 

is  necessary.     Therefore,  a  tabulation,  such  as  the  above, 


A  Classification  of  Mankind  0 

must  not  be  regarded  as  representing  all  the  relations 

between  certain,  groups. 

The  Oloti*5chi  are  divisible  as  follows: — 
The  Pygmy  Ulotrichi  are  : — 

Andamanese  :  Frizzly  black  hair  with  a  reddish  tinge; 
very  dark  skin;  stature  about  l*485m.  (4ft.  lOfin.),* 
with  well-proportioned  Jsody  and  small  hands;  head 
small  and  Dractfycephalic  (index  82)* ;  face  broad  at 
cheekbones;  lips  full  but  not  everted ;  chin  small  but 
not  retreating;  nose  much  sunken  at  the  root  but 
straight  and  small;  eyes  prominent.  Andaman 
Islands. 

Semang:  These  are  closely  allied  to  the  Andamanese 
They  have  crisp  woolly,  brownish  black  hair;  dark 
chocolate  brown  skin,  approximating  to  black; 
stature  qf/l;49m.  (4ft,  lOfin.)  and  are  sturdily  built; 
head  mesaticephatic  (index  78-9) ;  round  face ;  full 
lips ;  short  flattened  nose ;  widely  open  eyes.  Malay 
Peninsula  and  East  Sumatra. 

Negritoes  of  the  Philippines,  or  A  etas  :  Woolly  black  hair, 
sometimes  tinged  with  red.  The  men  often  have 
abundant  growth  on  face,  chest,  and  limbs ;  skin  of  a 
dark  sooty-brown  colour;  stature  l'474m.  (4ft.  10in.), 
the  body  being  slender.and  the/arms  long;  the  head 
is  large  in  proportion  and  mesaticephalic  (index  80) ; 
forehead  broad  and  rounded ;  jaw  and  teeth  pro- 
jecting; lips  thick  and  the  under  one  everted;  nose 
broad  at  nostrils  and  sunken  at  root;  eyes  deep-set 
and  wide  apart. 

Negrilloes  :  Hair  very  short  and  woolly,  usually  of  a  dark 
rusty  brown  colour,  sometimes  very  dark;  face  hair 

*  The  figures  of  the  stature  and  cephalic  index  given  in  this 
table  are  averages  of  males.  There  is  a  considerable  range  in 
most  cases,  but  the  data  here  presented  will  serve  to  give  a 
fairly  correct  idea  of  the  raciai  types. 


10  The  Races  of  Man 

variable,  but  the  body  usually  covered  with  a  light, 
downy  hair ;  skin  reddish  or  yellowish  brown,  some- 
times very  dark;  stature  from  l'378m.  to  l*452m. 
(4ft.  44-in.  .to  4ft.  9^in.) ;  sometimes  steatopygic  :*i_ 
head  mesaticephalic  (index  79) ;  sometimes  prog- 
nathic; lips  usually  thin,  and  the  upper  one  long; 
nose  broad  and  exceptionally  long ;  eyes  protuberant. 
Equatorial  forests  of  Africa. 
The  short,  yellow-skinned  Ulotrichi  are: — 

Bushmen :  Short,  black,  woolly  hair,  which  becomes 
rolled  up  into  little  knots;  skin  yellow;  stature 
l'529m.  (5ft.  Jin.);  steatopygia  is  especially  marked 
in  women ;  hands  and  feet  very  small ;  very  small 
skull,  markedly  low  in  crown,  dolichocephalic  (index 
76) ;  straight  face  with  prominent  cheekbones  and 
bulging  forehead ;  nose  extremely  broad,  the  Bush- 
men being  the  most  platyrrhine  of  all  mankind;  no 
lobe  to  the  ear.  Now  mainly  confined  to  the 
Kalahari  desert. 

Hottentots :  A  cross  between  Bushmen  and  Hamites  or 
Bantus,  in  which  the  characters  of  the  first  pre- 
dominate; mongrel  peoples  have  also  arisen,  mainly 
from  Boer- Hottentot  parentage.  Short,  woolly, 
black  hair,  with  tendency  to  become  rolled  up  into 
little  knots ;  skin  brownish  yellow,  sometimes  tinged 
with  grey  or  red;  stature  l-604m. »  (5ft.  3in.) ; 
tendency  to  steatopygia;  head  small  and  dolicho- 
cephalic (index  74) ;  face  prognathic,  with  small  chin 
and  prominent  cheekbones.     South-west  Africa. 

*  Steatopygia  is  the  name  given  to  a  large  development  of 
fatty  tissue  in  the  buttocks ;  it  is  characteristic  of  some  of  the 
more  primitive  races  of  Africa,  more  especially  among  the 
Bushmen,  but  it  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  general 
development  of  fat  which  occurs  among  other  African  peoples. 
Steatopygia  also  occurred  among  some  of  the  prehistoric 
cave-dwellers  of  France. 


A  Classification  of  Mankind  11 

The  short  or  tall,  dark-skinned  Ulotrichi  are: — 
Negroes.     The  true  Negroes  are  divisible  into  two  main 
stocks : — 

Western  Sudanese  or  Nigritian :   Hair  frizzly;    dark 
brown  or  black  skin;  stature  1*73  m.  (5ft.  8in.); 
burly,  short-legged  and  long-armed;  dolichoce- 
phalic   (index  74-75);    frequently  prognathous; 
forehead  often  bulging  ;  thick,  and  often  everted 
lips;  platyrrhine.     Guinea  Coast  and,  originally, 
tropical  Africa.   ' 
Eastern  Sudanese  or  Nilotic  Negroes  :  Very  dark  skin, 
sometimes   with  reddish   tinge;    tall   and  slim, 
with  long  legs ;  narrow,  elongated  head  ;  retreat- 
ing forehead ;    everted  lips.     Sudan  and  upper 
Nile  valley. 
Bantu :  The  numerous  peoples  of  Central  and  Southern 
Africa  who  speak  Bantu  languages  present  a  great 
variety  of  types.     They  are  a  Negro  people  mixed 
with   Hamitic  and  other  elements.     Hair  uniformly 
of  the  ordinary  Negro  type;   stature  1*64-1*715  m. 
(5ft  4-|-7^-in.) ;  dolichocephalic — there  is  a  brachioce- 
phalic element  with  lower  stature,  1-594  m.  (5ft.  2in.); 
fatty  deposits  are  of  frequent  occurence,  more  fre- 
quently among  the  women  ;  usually  skin  less  dark, 
stature  lower,  head  less  elongated,  prognathism  less 
marked,  forehead  flatter,  nose  generally  more  promi- 
nent and  narrower  than  in  the  true  Negroes.     Africa, 
south  of  4  deg.  N.  Lat.,  but  including  the  Cameroons 
and  excluding  the  Great  Rift  Valley  plateau  and  the 
extreme  south-west  of  Africa. 
Papuans :    Black,    woolly    hair,    often    of    considerable 
length;    dark    chocolate    skin;    usually   of   medium 
stature,    but    variable ;    dolichocephalic   (index   73) ; 
prognathous;  platyrrhine,  nose  sometimes  aquiline. 
New  Guinea,  and  originally  throughout  Melanesia, 
Australia  and  Tasmania. 


12  The  Races  of  Man 

Melanesians :  More  variable  than  Papuans,  and  have 
sometimes  curly,  and  even  wavy  hair  (doubtless  due 
to  racial  mixture) ;  skin  often  lighter  than  Papuans, 
being  chocolate  or  occasionally  copper-coloured; 
stature  of  men  ranges  from  1\  0-1*78  m.  (4ft.  11  in.  to 
5ft.  10in.),  the  predominating  heights  are  from  1*56  m. 
(5ft.  liin.)  to  1-6  m.  (5ft.  3in.) ;  cephalic  index  67-85, 
but  dolichocephaly  prevails  generally,  though  brachy- 
•  cephaly  may  locally  predominate ;  nose  platyrrhine, 
sometimes  aquiline,  sometimes  straight  or  flattened. 
Bismarck  Archipelago  to  New  Caledonia,  Fiji,  some 
parts  of  New. Guinea. 
The    Cyreiotnichi    are    divisible    into    several    main 

groups,  according  to  their  skin  colour ;  the  great  majority 

are  dolichocephalic. 

Dolichocephalic  Cymotrichi,  with  dark  brown  to  nearly 

black  skin  are  : — 

Veddas :  These  aboriginals  of  Ceylon  are  perhaps  the 
most  primitive  survivals  of  a  Pre-Dravidian  race. 
Their  hair  is  long,  black,  coarse,  wavy  or  curly;  skin 
dark  brown;  stature  l*533m.  (5ft.  Jin.);  smallest 
human  skull,  extremely  dolichocephalic  (index  70-5); 
orthognathic,  broad  face,  with  thin  lips  and  poin 
chin;  forehead  slightly  retreating,  with  brow  arches 
pointed;  nose  depressed  at  root,  almost  platyrrhine. 

Jungle  Tribes  of  the  Deccan  :  There  are  various  jungle 
tribes  in  the  Deccan,  such  as  the  Kadirs,  Kurumbas, 
and  [rulas,  which  are  characterised  by  short  stature, 
generally  about  1*601  m.  (5ft.  Sin.)  or  less,  dolicho- 
cephaly, and  marked  platyrrhiny. 

Sakai :  Perhaps  belonging  here  are  the  Sakai,  jungle 
tribes  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  East  Sumatra. 
Hair  long,  wavy  or  curly,  black  with  reddish  tinge; 
skin  yellowish  brown  to  dark  brown;  stature  l*504m. 
(4ft.  11^-in.);  mesaticephalic  (index  78;;  orthog- 
nathous;  nose  mesorrhine,  bordering  on  platyrrhine. 


A  Classification  of  Mankind  13 

These  appear  to  have  mixed  with  other  peoples,  but 
are  now  regarded  as  mainly  of  Pre-Dravidian  origin. 

Toala :  Hair  very  wavy  and  even  curly;  skin  darkish 
brown;  stature  l-575m.  (5ft.  2in.) ;  they  have  low 
brachycephaly  (index  82) ;  face  somewhat  short ; 
thick  lips ;  strongly  platyrrhine  nose.  South-west 
peninsula  of  Celebes.  These  people  seem  to  be 
undoubtedly  of  Pre-Dravidian  origin,  though  some 
mixture  has  since  taken  place. 

Australians :  A  fairly  uniform  people,  probably  of  mainly 
Pre-Dravidian  stock.  Curly  hair;  skin  dark 
chocolate  brown;  stature  l-67m.  (5ft.  5|in.);  doli- 
chocephalic (index  72);  prognathous;  platyrrhine. 
Some  of  the  Australians,  at  any  rate,  appear  to  have 
mixed  with  a  Papuan  population  that  preceded  them 
in  Australia. 

Dravidians :  This  is  a  general  term  for  the  short  dark 
peoples  of  the  Deccan.  The  hair  is  plentiful,  with 
an  occasional  tendency  to  curl ;  stature  usually 
l-626m.  (5ft.  4in.);  dolichocephalic  (index  74-76); 
typically  mesorrhine.  Some  Dravidians  exhibit 
traces  of  a  Pre-Dravidian  strain. 

Ethiopians  or  Hamitcs  of  North- East  Africa  include  the 
Ancient  and  Modern  Egyptians  (in  part),  Beja,  Galla, 
Somali,  Abyssinians  (with  Arab  mixture) ;  mixed 
with  Negroes  are  the  Zandeh  (Niarn  Niam),  Fulah, 
Masai,  etc.  Perhaps  this  is  a  very  ancient  admixture 
of  Semite  with  Negro.  Hair  usually  frizzly;  red- 
brown  skin ;  stature  1-67-1 -708  m.  (5ft.  5fin.-7£in.) ; 
mesaticephalic  (index  75-78) ;  face  elongated ;  not 
prognathous;  lips  thin  or  slightly  turned;  nose 
usually  prominent,  leptorrhine  to  mesorrhine. 
Dolichocephalic  Cymotrichi  of  intermediate  shades 
are  : — 

Indo- Afghans  :  Dark  brunets  with  a  complexion  of  a 
very   light   transparent  brown  ;     stature  moderate, 


14  *oes  of  Man 

^  in  certain  Rajputs  to  1*748  m. (5ft. 8f in.); 
^ephalic  ;    face  long;  features  regular;  nose 
-light  or  convex,  narrow  and  finely  cut. 
utiesians :  Throughout  the    East    Indian  Archipelago 
and  extending  into  further  India  is  a  race  with  undu- 
lating  black  hair,  often  tinged  with  red;  tawny  skin, 
often  rather  light;  low  stature  of  1-54-1.57  m.  (5frT 
J-lJin.) ;  mesaticephalic  head  (index  76-78),  probably  i 
originally    dolichocephalic;     cheekbones    sometimes 
projecting;  nose  often  flattened,  sometimes  concave. 
It  is  difficult  to  isolate  this  Indonesian  type  as  it  has 
almost  everywhere  been  mixed  with  a  brachycephalic 
Proto-Malay  stock,  but  the  M units  of  Borneo  (cranial 
index  73)  are  probably  typical. 

Polynesians :  These  may  be  regarded  as  a  mixed  variety 
of  the  Indonesian  race  which  has  greatly  increased 
in  stature,  1-72  m.  (5ft.  7fin.);  dolichocephaly  and 
mesaticephaly  are  widely  spread  in  Polynesia,  but 
there  are  brachycephalic  centres  in  Tonga,  the 
Marquesas  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands;  the  broaden- 
ing of  the  head  is  probably  due  to  an  early  mixture 
with  a  Proto-Malay  stock;  nose  prominent,  some- 
times convex.  This  variety  extends  from  Hawaii  to 
New  Zealand,  and  from  Samoa  to  Easter  Island. 
Of  tawny  white  complexion  are: — ■ 

Semites  :  Jet-black  hair  ;  stature  1-625- 1*65  m.  (5ft.  4-5in.) 
dolichocephalic  (index  70) ;  elongated  face,  fine 
regular  features ;  straight  or  aquiline  nose  ;  the  most 
pure  type,  with  a  narrow  straight  nose,  is  met  with 
among  the  Arabs  of  South  Arabia.  The  Jews  are  a 
mixed  people  who  may  have  acquired  their  so-called 
"Jewish  nose"  from  the  Assyrioids  or  Hittites;  the 
latter  are  now  probably  represented  by  the  Armen- 
ians. Their  original  home  was  in  South-Western 
Asia,  more  especially  in  Arabia ;  but  they  have 
wandered  afar,  mainly  into  North  Africa. 


.    ■> 


Plate  HI.} 


ARAB. 


[Races  of  Man,  p.  14. 


<         r 


Plate  IV.) 


AINU 


Races  of  Man,  p  .15 


A  Classification  of  Mankind  15 

Mediterraneans  :  Hair  brown  or  black,  with  fair  represen- 
tatives  about  the  Atlas  Mountains ;    stature  about 
1*63  m.  (5ft.  4Jin.);    dolichocephalic  (index   72-76); 
face   oval;    nose  leptorrhine   or  mesorrhine;    eyes 
generally    very    dark.     The    Ancient   Egyptians   (in 
part),  the  Libyans,  Iberians,  Liguriansand  Pelasgians, 
and  the  dolichocephalic  (cranial  index  73-74),  neo- 
lithic inhabitants  of  Western  Europe  and  the  British 
Islands    belonged    to    this    stock.     'Their    present 
distribution    is    mainly    round    the    shores   of    the 
Mediterranean. 
The  fairest  of  all  peoples  are : — 
Nordics  or  "  Teutonic  Race  "  :  Yellow,  very  light  brown, 
or  reddish  hair,  and  blue  or  grey  eyes  ;  reddish-white 
complexion;  tall,  with  stature  of  l'73m.  (5ft.  8in.) ; 
mesaticephalic  (index  76-79  in  the  living) ;  long  face ; 
narrow   aquiline    nose.      Their   original    home   was 
North  Europe. 
Mesaticephalic  Cymotrichi : 
Ainu  :  The  indigenous  population  of  Japan  consisted  of 
the  Ainu,  who  are  characterised  by  a  great  profusion 
of  black  wavy  hair;  short,  thick-set;  mesaticephalic 
(index  77*8) ;  orthognathous,  with  broad  face;  short, 
fairly  broad  nose ;  large  horizontal  eyes,  Mongolian 
fold  usually  absent.     Balz  regards  them  as  more  or 
less  related  to  the  Alpine  or  "  Celto-Slavic  "  Race, 
but  Deniker  classes  them  as  Palaeasiatics,  and  Keane 
places  them,  along  with  Semites  and  Dravidians,  in 
the  Homo  Mediterranensis  group  of  the  "Caucasic 
Peoples." 
The  Brachycephalic  Cymotrichi  may  be  conveniently 
included    under    the    term    Alpines    or    "Alpine    Race.'" 
This  race   consists  of  a  short  and  a  tall   variety.     The 
race  occurs  mainly  in  the  plateaus  and  mountains  that 
extend  from   the    Himalayas,   through   Asia   Minor,   the 
Balkan   Peninsula  to  Central  France  and  Brittany, 


16  The  Races  of  Man 

Cevenoie :  This  name  may  be  applied  to  the  short,  thick- 
set variety  which  mainly  occurs  in  Europe.  Light 
chestnut  or  dark  hair;  hazel  grey  eyes;  dull  white 
skin;  stature  1*63-1 '64m.  (oft.  4-4^-in.);  cephalic 
index  .85-87;  broad  face;  rather  broad  heavy  nose. 

Dinaric  or  Adriatic:  A  tall  variety,  stature  l,68-l,72m. 
(5ft.  6-7fin.),  which  is  probably  an  offshoot  from 
the  Anatolian. 

Anatolian  or  Armenian'.  The  former  name  may  be  given 
to  the  tall  variety  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Armenians 
appear  to  be  the  modified  representatives  of  an 
ancient  Hittite  stock.  They  are  characterised  by  a 
tawny  white  skin;  stature  \*§3-\mGQm.  (5ft.  4J- 
6^-in.) ;  the  body  is  heavy,  with  a  tendency  to 
corpulency;  brachycephalic  head,  which  is  very  flat 
behind  (index  85-87) ;  aquiline  nose  with  a  depressed 

,../    -tip  anci  large  wings  is  very  characteristic. 

Leiotrichi :  The  straight-haired  groups  of  mankind, 
who  are  also  mainly  brachycephalic,  are  chiefly 
confined  to  Asia  and  America. 

Palaasiatics  or  Eastern  Siberians :  The  head  is  often 
mesaticephalic ;  but  in  most  of  their  features,  flat 
face,  prominent  cheek  bones,  oblique  eyes,  yellowish 
brown  colour,  low  stature,  long,  lank  hair  and  sparse 
beard,  they  resemble  other  Siberian  groups.  They 
inhabit  the  north-east  corner  of  Asia,  and  include  the 
Yukaghirs,  Koryaks,  Chukchis,  Kamchadales  and 
Gilyaks;  the  latter  appear  to  have  mixed  with  the 
Ainu,  which  would  account  for  the  more  regular 
features  and  beards  of  some  of  them. 

Tungus:  The  Tungus  group  is  subject  to  considerable 
variation.  The  northern  members  resemble  in  the 
main  the  Palasasiatics — for  example,  the  Tungus, 
Orochons,  Lamuts  and  Gold.  The  Manchus  are 
taller,  slighter,  and  with  a  tendency  towards  mesati- 
cephaly. 


A  Classification  of  Mankind  17 

Koreans:  The  modification  of  the  Tungus  type  exhibited 
in  the  Manchus  is  intensified  in  the  Koreans,  who 
are  tall  and  slender,  with  a  cephalic  index  of  82; 
long,  narrow,  and  frequently  prognathous  face; 
narrow  aquiline  nose ;  eyes  with  Mongolian  fold  ; 
long,  thin  beard. 

Mongols:  The  skin  varies  in  colour  from  pale  yellowish 
to  yellowish  brown ;  black  straight  hair,  little  hair 
on  face  or  body;  stature  l*635m.  (5ft.  3Jin.); 
brachycephalic  (index  82-84)  with  a  low  vault; 
cheekbones  prominent;  flattened  face,  Mongolian 
eyes.  Typical  Mongols  are  the  Sharras,  of  whom 
.the  Khalkas,  who  inhabit  the  whole  Gobi  area,  are 
the  most  important  group.  The  Kalmuks  live  to 
the  west  of  the  Khalka  country,  mainly  in  Zungaria 
and  the  northern  part  of  Kashgaria ;  an  outlier  also 
occurs  north-west  of  the  Caspian.  The  Buryats  to 
the  north  are  somewhat  mixed,  and  extend  east  and 
west  of  the  southern  half  of  Lake  Baikal. 

Turki:  Yellowish  white  complexion,  some  with  much 
hair  on  the  face,  medium  stature  1*675  m.  (5ft.  6in.), 
with  a  tendency  to  obesity ;  a  brachycephalic  high 
head  (index  85-87) ;  elongated  oval  face ;  straight, 
somewhat  prominent  nose;  eyes  not  Mongolian. 
The  eastern  group  comprises  the  Yakuts  of  the  Lena 
basin  and  certain  so-called  Tatars;  the  central 
group  contains  the  Kirghiz,  Kazaks,  Uzbegs,  etc.  of 
Russian  Turkistan  ;  the  western  is  composed  mainly 
of  the  Turkomans,  east  of  the  Caspian,  and  of  the 
Osmanli  in  Asia  Minor  and  Turkey.  To  this  group 
belonged  the  Ughuz  and  the  dreaded  Uighurs,  who 
once  founded  a  civilised  state  in  Northern  Kashgaria 
(Chinese  Turkistan). 

Ugrians:  Generally  speaking,  the  Ugrians  have  a  yellow- 
ish white  skin ;  the  hair  may  be  black  or  brown  ; 
they  are  generally  of  short  stature ;  mesaticephalic 


18  The  Races  of  Man 

or  brachycephalic;  projecting  cheek  bones;  straight 
or  concave  nose.  Keane  employs  the  terms 
Ugrian  Finns  or  Ugro-Finns;  and  Deniker  calls  the 
Asiatic  tribes,  Yeniseians  or  Tubas.  The  peoples  of 
Western  Siberia  mainly  belong  to  this  group,  such  as 
the  Ostyaks,  Tuba,  Voguls,  Samoyads;  the  Votyaks 
and  Cheremiss  have  penetrated  into  Russia,  and  the 
Lapps  into  Northern  Scandinavia.  The  latter  have 
a  stature  of  1*53  m.  (5ft.  Jin.),  a  cephalic  index  of 
87,  with  a  correspondingly  broad  face,  prominent 
cheek  bones,  dark  brown  hair,  and  a  yellowish  white 
skin,;  like  most  Ugrians  they  have  an  ungainly  figure. 
Great  modifications  have  taken  place  in  some  of  the 
peoples,  who,  belonging  to  this  stock,  have  migrated 
into  Europe,  such  as  the  Finns,  Esthonians,  Livo- 
nians,  Buigars,  Magyars,  and  others. 

Indo-Chinese,  Pareceans  or  Southern  Mongols:  Hair  black 
and  lank,  little  hair  on  the  face ;  skin  colour  varies 
from  yellowish  in  the  north  to  olive  and  coppery- 
brown  in  the  south ;  stature  varies  a  good  deal,  but 
is  generally  short,  averaging  about  1*6  m.  (5ft.  3in.) ; 
often  thick  set ;  brachycephalic  (index  80-85) ;  fre- 
quently prognathic;  nose  short  and  broad;  eyes 
often  very  oblique,  with  Mongolian  fold.  Most  of 
the  peoples  of  this  group  are  considerably  mixed 
with  other  races ;  they  comprise  the  Tibetans, 
Himalayans,  Chinese  proper,  and  the  bulk  of  the 
populations  of  further  India  and  Indo-China.  Those 
members  who  spread  into  the  East  Indian  Archipel- 
ago are  often  called  Oceanic  Mongols,  but  a  better 
term  is  Proto-Malays;  and  it  is  from  these  the  true 
Malay  is  derived. 
Dolichocephalic  American  Indians: — 

Eskimo :  The  pure  Eskimo  are  a  very  distinct  group, 
with  a  brownish  or  reddish-yellow  complexion ; 
stature  of  F575m.  (5ft.  2in.) ;  they  are  dolichoce- 


A  Classification  op  Mankind  19 

phalic  (index  71-72),  with  a  high  vault;  they  have  a 
broad  face,  projecting  cheek  bones ;  and  eyes 
straigttt  and  black. 

Palceo- Amerinds:  Deniker  recognises  a  short  dolichoce- 
phalic South  American  Palaso-American  type  with 
wavy  or  even  curly  hair  which  is  still  recognisable  in 
the  mesaticephals.  The  cranial  index  of  the  Boto- 
cudos  is  73*9. 
Mesaticephalic  or  Brachycephalic  American  Indians: — 

Patagonians :  The  brachycephalic  Patagonians  (index  85) 
are  of  a  brown  colour ;  tall  stature  averaging  1-73- 
1*83  m.  (5ft.  8in.-6ft.);  and  square  face.  Traces  of 
this  stock  are  found  in  Central  South  America. 

Southern  Amerinds:  Mesaticephalic  or  brachycephalic; 
with  yellow  skin,  smooth  body;  straight  or  concave 
nose ;  and  short  stature. 

Central  Amerinds  :  Brachycephalic,  with  brownish-yellow 
or  brown  skin  ;  low  stature  ;  and  straight  or  aquiline 
nose. 

North- Western  Amerinds  of  the  Pacific  slope:  Brachyce- 
phalic (index  of  82-85) ;  they  have  usually  a  rounded 
face;  and  stature  of  l*66-l,69m.  (5ft  5Jin.-6iin.). 

Northern  Amerinds  of  the  Atlantic  slope  :  Mesaticephalic; 
with  warm  yellow  skin ;  oval  face ;  straight  or 
aquiline  nose;  and  stature  of  1-68-1-75  m.  (5ft.  6-9in.). 


20  The  Races  of  Man 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    RACES    AND    PEOPLES 
ACCORDING   TO   AREAS 


OCEANIA 

Oceania  comprises  Australia,  Melanesia,  Polynesia 
and  Micronesia. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  Australia  was  originally 
inhabited,  or  at  all  events  in  parts,  by  Papuans  or  Negri- 
toes, or  more  probably  by  a  stock  intermediate  between 
them,  who  wandered  on  foot  to  the  extreme  south  of 
that  continent.  When  Bass'  Strait  was  formed,  those 
who  were  cut  off  from  the  mainland  formed  the  ancestors 
of  the  Tasmanians,  who  never  advanced  beyond  an  early 
stage  of  stone-age  culture.  Later,  a  Pre-Dravidian 
race  migrated  into  Australia,  and  over-ran  the  continent 
and  absorbed  the  sparse  aboriginal  population.  Since 
then  they  have  practically  remained  isolated  from  the 
rest  of  the  world.  Their  languages  bear  no  relation  to 
the  Austronesian  or  Oceanic  linguistic  family. 

Melanesia  includes  New  Guinea  and  the  neighbouring 
islands,  and  the  chain  of  archipelagoes  that  extends  n'  i 
the  Admiralties  to  New  Caledonia,  including  Fiji.  For 
the  sake  of  clearness  these  will  be  termed  the  Melanesia n 
Archipelago.  The  inhabitants  of  this  area  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  Oceanic  Negroes.  The  primitive  stock 
appears  to  have  been  a  very  dark  coloured  and  invariably 
woolly-haired  people,  to  whom  the  name  Papuans  can 
perhaps  be  best  applied.  They  form  the  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  of  New  Guinea  and  the  basis  of  the  popula- 
tions of  the  Melanesian  Archipelago.  The  latter  peoples 
speak  a  language  which  is  a  primitive  form  of  the  Austric 
linguistic  family,  whereas  the   Papuan  languages  belong 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  21 

to  a  different  family.  Certain  physical  traits  and  cultural 
developments  also  indicate  that  foreign  influences  have 
modified  the  original  stock.  The  view  now  commonly 
held  is  that  the  Melanesian  Archipelago  was  originally 
inhabited  by  Papuans,  and  perhaps  also  by  Negritoes, 
and  that  the  Proto-Polynesians  in  their  migration  from 
the  East  Indian  Archipelago  to  Polynesia  passed  through 
this  region  and  imposed  their  speech  on  the  population 
and  otherwise  modified  it.  In  later  times  parts  of  Mel- 
anesia have  been  directly  influenced  by  movements  from 
Polynesia.  The  result  of  these  supposed  influences  has 
been  to  form  the  Melanesian  peoples  as  they  exist  to-day. 
Settlements  from  the  Melanesian  Archipelago  occur 
along  the  greater  part  of  the  coast  of  South-east  New 
Guinea. 

The  Polynesians  are  a  mixed  people.  Their  original 
home  was  perhaps  somewhere  in  Eastern  India,  whence, 
shortly  before  our  era,  they  migrated  to  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago,  where  we  may  speak  of  them  as  Indonesians. 
The  Proto-Malays  were  about  this  time  pressing  down 
south  from  the  mainland  of  Asia,  and  eventually  a  mixed 
population  seems  to  have  gone  further  east.  Probably 
the  Proto-Polynesians,  as  they  may  now  be  termed, 
settled  for  some  time  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
Melanesian  Archipelago,  where  some  mixture  took  place. 
Perhaps  about  450  A.D.  they  began  to  adventure  into  the 
Pacific.  Samoa  was  certainly  colonised  in  600  A.D.,  and 
Hawaii  first  settled  in  650  A.D.  Voyages  from  the 
south  to  Hawaii  ceased  in  1325  A.D.  New  Zealand  was 
visited  in  850  A.D.,  but  "the  fleet"  did  not  arrive  till 
1350  A.D.  The  darker  skinned  and  more  curly  haired 
peoples  who  occur  in  some  of  the  eastern  Polynesian 
islands  may  be  the  remains  of  a  half-breed  class  of  low 
rank  due  to  the  sojourn  in  Melanesia.  The  bulk  of  the 
Polynesians,  however,  show  very  little  trace  of  this 
mixture. 


22  The  Races  of  Man 

The  Micronesians  have  much  the  same  origin  as  the 
Polynesians,  but  many  exhibit  more  direct  traces  of 
Asiatic  influence. 

A  ustralians. 

The  Australians  can  rarely  depend  on  regular  supplies 
of  food.  They  feed  on  flesh,  fish,  grubs,  insects  and  wild 
vegetable  food.  Cultivation  of  the  soil  is  unknown, 
except  that  on  the  west  coast  the  natives  invariably 
re-insert  the  head  of  the  wild  yams  they  have  dug  up  so 
as  to  be  sure  of  a  future  crop.  The  cultivation  of  purs- 
lane seems  to  be  a  well-established  fact.  The  Australians 
are  expert  hunters  and  trackers,  and  make  use  of  in- 
genious devices  for  catching  fish  and  land  animals.  The 
game  caught  by  a  man  has  to  be  shared  with  others 
according  to  rule.  There  are  many  food  taboos.  Canni- 
balism is  widely  spread,  but  human  flesh  is  nowhere  a 
regular  article  of  food.  There  are  no  domesticable 
animals  except  the  introduced  dingo.  Clothing  of  every 
description,  apart  from  ornament,  is  rarely  worn  ;  but  in 
the  south  skin  cloaks  are  commonly  used,  and  occasionally 
fur  aprons.  Scarification  of  the  body  is  very  frequent, 
and  prominent  cicatrices  are  often  made.  Dwellings  are 
usually  of  the  simplest  character,  being  breakwinds  or 
slight  huts ;  but  in  places  permanent  huts  are  constructed 
of  boughs  covered  with  bark  and  grass,  and  sometimes 
coated  with  clay.  Implements  are  made  of  shell,  bone, 
wood  and  stone.  Spears  and  wooden  clubs  are  universal ; 
many  of  the  spears  are  thrown  by  hand,  but  very  gener- 
ally some  are  projected  by  means  of  a  spear-thrower. 
The  use  of  the  boomerang  is  nearly  universal ;  the  variety 
that  returns  when  it  is  thrown  is  in  most  tribes  only  a 
plaything;  it  is,  however,  used  for  throwing  at  birds. 
There  are  no  bows  and  arrows.  Pottery  is  unknown. 
Rafts  are  made  of  one  or  more  logs,  and  the  commonest 
form  of  canoe  is  that  made  of  a  single  sheet  of  bark. 

The  Australians  are  divided  into  tribes  of  varying  size, 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  23 

who  occupy  a  certain  tract  of  hunting  ground  in  common, 
speak  dialects  of  the  same  language,  and  acknowledge  a 
common  relatedness  to  each  other  which  they  deny  to 
all  other  tribes.  Tribes  are  divided  into  well-defined 
local  groups,  each  having  rights  over  a  definite  portion  of 
the  common  country,  and  these  are  sub-divided  until  the 
smallest  unit  consists  of  a  few  people  of  the  same  blood 
under  the  leadership  of  one  of  the  ablest  elder  men.  The 
grouping  of  individuals  under  the  names  of  plants, 
animals,  or  various  objects  is  practically  universal ;  these 
are  termed  totem  septs,  clans,  or  kins.  The  members 
commonly  believe  themselves  to  be  actually  descended 
from,  or  related  to,  their  totem,  and  all  members  are 
regarded  as  brethren,  though  they  may  belong  to  differ- 
ent local  communities  or  tribes.  The  totem  is  rarely 
injured,  killed  or  eaten,  and  members  of  the  totem  sept 
must  help  and  never  injure  each  other.  Typically  each 
totem  sept  is  exogamous.  Usually  the  totem  septs  of  a 
tribe  are  grouped  into  two  exogamous  moieties,  frequent- 
ly termed  phratries,  each  of  which  may  be  divided  into 
two  or  four  exogamous  classes.  Descent  in  the  classes  is 
indirect  matrilineal  or  indirect  patrilineal,  that  is,  while 
the  child  still  belongs  to  the  mother's  or  the  father's 
moiety  (as  the  case  may  be)  it  is  assigned  to  the  class  of 
that  society  to  which  the  mother  or  the  father  does  not 
belong;  but  the  grandchildren  belong  to  the  class  of  the 
grandmother  or  grandfather.  Thus  descent  in  an  indirect 
matrilineal  group  is  as  follows : — 

Moiety.        Man  of    marr;es    Woman  of  Their  children  are 
class  class.         members  of  class 

a  = 

a  = 


B 


b 

b 


b 

b 

b 

b 

a 

a 

a 

c 

a 

24  The  Race;  of  Man 

The  classificatory  system  of  relationship  terms  prevails. 
Descent  is  reckoned  through  the  mother  in  some  tribes 
and  through  the  father  in  others.  The  local  group  has 
perpetual  succession  through  males. 

Among  many  tribes  there  are  two  kinds  of  marital 
relation,  but  in  every  case  the  marriage  can  only  take 
place  between  the  members  of  certain  groups.  Thus  in 
most  tribes  all  the  women  are  either  actual  or  potential 
wives,  or  sisters  of  the  men  of  their  own  tribe.  A  person 
of  marriageable  age  may  be  allocated  to  a  special  spouse, 
and  to  a  varying  number  of  accessory  spouses  for  varying 
periods.  In  other  tribes  individual  marriage  occurs  with 
an  increasing  limitation  of  the  rights  of  other  members 
Df  the  community. 

Each  totem  and  local  group  has  its  head  man,  within 
which  area  alone  he  exercises  power  The  head  men 
constitute  the  council  of  the  tribe,  and  generally  one  is 
chief. 

Beneficent  and  malevolent  magic  are  universally 
practised.  Besides  its  social  side  totemism  has  its 
religious  aspect.  An  emotional  relation  often  exists 
between  the  members  of  the  totem  sept  and  the  totem, 
and  in  some  cases  the  totem  warns  or  protects  its  human 
kinsmen.  Certain  tribes  perform  elaborate  ceremonies, 
which  are  designed  to  render  the  totem  prolific,  or  to 
insure  its  abundance.  Most  tribes  believe  in  mythical 
beings,  and  a  belief  in  a  vague  supreme  being  or  elder  in 
the  sky  appears  to  be  widely  spread 

Papuans  and  Melanesians. 

The  Melanesians  are  a  noisy,  excitable,  demonstrative, 
affectionate,  cheery,  passionate  people.  They  could 
not  be  hunters  everywhere,  as  in  most  islands  there  is 
no  game,  nor  could  they  be  pastors  anywhere,  as  there  are 
no  cattle;  the  only  resources  are  fishing  and  agriculture. 
In  New  Guinea  and  the  West  Solomons  the  sago  palm  is 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  25 

of  great  importance.  Coco-nut  palms  grow  mainly  on 
the  shore  in  most  islands.  The  main  crops  are  various 
kinds  of  bananas,  numerous  kinds  of  yams,  bread-fruit, 
taro  (caladium)  and  sweet  potatoes. 

The  men  go  nude  in  some  of  the  wilder  parts,  but 
mostly  they  wear  a  perineal  band,  which  may  be  broad 
or  merely  a  string.  Almost  everywhere  the  women 
wear  a  longer  or  shorter  petticoat  of  finely  shredded 
leaves.  The  darker  coloured  natives  decorate  their  skin 
by  cicatrices  and  cheloids.  True  tattooing  is  employed 
sporadically.  Every  portion  of  the  body  is  decorated  in 
various  ways  with  shells,  teeth,  feathers,  leaves,  flowers, 
and  other  objects,  and  bands  are  plaited  to  ornament  the 
neck,  trunk,  and  limbs.  Especially  characteristic  of 
Melanesia  are  shell  necklaces,  which  constitute  a  kind  of 
currency,  and  artificially  deformed  boars'  tusks. 

The  typical  Melanesian  house  has  a  roof  of  bamboo 
bent  over  a  ridge  pole  which  is  supported  by  two  main 
posts,  very  low  side  walls,  and  the  ends  filled  in  with 
bamboo  screens.  Pile  dwellings  are  found  in  New 
Britain,  some  of  the  Solomons,  and  in  New  Guinea, 
where  they  are  sometimes  in  the  sea. 

Bows  and  arrows  occur  in  New  Guinea,  except  in  the 
south-east  end,  and  generally  in  the  archipelago.  Spears 
are  used  in  the  greater  part  of  New  Guinea  and  the 
northern  archipelago.  Stone-headed  clubs  are  found  in 
New  Guinea  and  New  Hebrides,  wooden  clubs  are 
universal.  Slings  are  generally  distributed  in  the 
archipelago  and  in  parts  of  New  Guinea.  Rafts  and 
light  canoes  occur  in  the  Solomons,  but  the  hollow  tree 
trunk  with  plank  gunwhale  is  general  in  Melanesia. 

Food  is  cooked  in  the  earth-oven  everywhere ;  stone- 
boiling  is  very  widely  known,  boiling  in  clay  pots  is  local, 
and  sometimes  large  shells  are  employed  for  boiling. 
Wooden  vessels  for  preparing  and  cooking  food  are 
commonly    distributed.      Pottery    is    made    at    a    few 


26  The  Races  of  Man 

places  in  New  Guinea,  and  sporadically  in  the 
archipelago. 

A  division  of  the  community  into  two  exogamous 
groups  is  very  widely  spread,  no  intermarriage  being 
permitted  within  the  group.  Mother-right  is  very  preva- 
lent, descent  and  inheritance  being  counted  on  the 
mother's  side,  and  a  man's  property  descends  to  his 
sister's  children ;  but  the  mother  is  in  no  way  the  head 
of  the  family;  the  house  is  the  father's,  the  garden  may 
be  his,  the  rule  and  government  are  his,  though  the 
maternal  uncle  sometimes  has  more  authority  than  the 
father.  The  transition  to  father-right  has  definitely 
occurred  in  various  places,  and  is  taking  place  elsewhere; 
thus,  in  some  of  the  New  Hebrides  the  father  has  to  buy 
off  the  rights  of  his  wife's  relations  or  his  sister's  children. 
The  classificatory  system  of  relationship-terms  very 
generally  prevails.  Totemism  has  marked  socialising 
effects,  as  totemic  solidarity  takes  precedence  of  all  other 
considerations.  It  occurs  in  some  parts  of  Southern 
New  Guinea,  Fiji,  and  other  islands  in  the  archipelago, 
where  it  is  becoming  obsolete.  Almost  everywhere  in  a 
village  there  is  one  building  (often  two,  sometimes 
more)  of  a  public  character  where  men  eat  and  spend 
their  time,  in  these  young  men  sleep,  and  strangers  are 
entertained ;  in  the  Solomons  these  are  also  canoe-houses. 
Frequently  they  contain  images;  women  are  excluded 
from  them.  In  the  Banks  Islands  and  NewT  Hebrides 
there  are  numerous  clubs,  the  members  of  which  are  of 
many  strictly  marked  grades,  promotion  being  by  pay- 
ment ;  each  rank  has  its  insignia,  sometimes  human 
effigies,  which  are  usually  but  wrongly  spoken  of  as 
"  idols."  Other  socialising  factors  are  feasts,  dances, 
markets,  and  money. 

Probably  everywhere  public  affairs  are  regulated  by 
discussion  among  the  old  or  important  men;  the  more 
primitive  the  society  the  more  important  this  is.     Chiefs 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  27 

exist  everywhere,  though  with  variable  powers,  which  / 
mainly  depend  upon  their  own  character,  but  in  many 
places  their  influence  is  attributed  to  their  mana. 
Hereditary  chieftainship  in  the  direct  line  rarely  occurs, 
though  it  is  often  retained  in  the  family.  Every  village 
has  its  own  chief  who  alone  rules,  but  weaker,  chiefs  join 
in  offensive  and  defensive  alliances,  and  powerful  chiefs 
sometimes  force  weaker  ones  into  vassalship.  The  power 
of  secret  societies  tends  to  obscure  that  of  the  chiefs. 
Practically  no  organisation  exists  for  redressing  wrong  or 
punishing  the  guilty,  hence  private  quarrels  are  personal 
affairs  and  public  opinion  stops  them  only  when  they 
become  acute.  The  growth  of  the  power  of  secret 
societies  forms  a  means  for  the  coercion  and  chastise- 
ment of  objectionable  persons,  but  they  are  often 
terrorising  and  black-mailing  institutions.  They  occur 
in  New  Guinea  (except  the  south-east  peninsula)  and 
New  Britain,  and  from  Torres  Islands  to  New  Caledonia, 
and  with  them  are  frequently  associated  awesome 
ceremonies  with  masked  performers  and  implements 
that  produce  weird  sounds. 

Important  secret  initiation  ceremonies  for  lads  take 
place  in  the  bush  or  in  special  houses  in  various  parts  of 
New  Guinea,  New  Britain,  some  of  the  Solomons,  and 
Malekula.  Magical  practices  occur  everywhere  for  the 
gaining  of  benefits,  plenteous  crops,  good  fishing,  fine 
weather,  rain,  success  in  love,  and  the  procuring  of 
children.  Harmful  magic  for  producing  sickness  and 
death  is  universal. 

From  the  Solomons  to  the  New  Hebrides  (and  perhaps 
elsewhere)  the  native  mind  is  entirely  possessed  by  belief 
in  a  supernatural  power  or  influence,  called  almost 
universally  mana.  This  is  what  works  to  effect  everything 
which  is  beyond  the  ordinary  power  of  man  or  outside 
the  common  processes  of  nature ;  but  this  power,  though 
in   itself   impersonal,   is   always   connected   with    some 


28  The  Races  of  Man 

person  who  directs  it;  all  spirits  have  it,  ghosts  generally, 
and  some  men  (Codrington).  Animism  does  not  exist; 
the  sea  or  forest  does  not  possess  its  own  soul,  but  is 
haunted  by  spirit  or  ghost ;  Animatism,  or  intrinsic  life 
in  inanimate  objects,  does  occur  in  some  places.  A 
more  or  less  developed  ancestor  cult  is  universally 
distributed.  Human  beings  may  become  beneficent  or 
maleficent  ghosts,  but  not  every  ghost  becomes  an 
object  of  regard.  The  ghost  who  is  to  be  worshipped  is 
the  spirit  of  a  man  who  in  his  lifetime  had  mana.  Hero 
cult  occurs  in  Torres  Straits.  Good  or  evil  spirits 
apparently  independent  of  ancestors  are  found  practically 
everywhere.  In  the  Solomons  more  attention  is  paid  to 
ghosts  with  a  greater  development  of  sacrifice,  offerings 
of  food  being  burnt  as  well  as  eaten  (associated  with 
these  is  an  advance  in  the  arts  of  life).  In  the  southern 
groups  more  attention  is  paid  to  the  spirits;  food,  and 
more  especially  money,  is  offered  to  them,  but  not  burnt 
or  eaten,  and  generally  offered  at  stones  sacred  to 
spirits.  There  are  no  priests,  but  a  man  who  knows  how 
to  perform  magic  or  approach  an  object  of  worship 
sometimes  sacrifices  for  all.  There  are  no  "  idols." 
Everywhere  life  after  death  is  believed  in. 

Polynesians. 

The  Polynesians  are  cheerful,  dignified  and  polite,  and 
more  imaginative  and  intelligent  but  more  dissolute  than 
the  Melanesians.  They  are  very  cleanly  in  their  habits 
and  neat  and  orderly. 

Wherever  possible  they  are  agriculturists,  growing 
yams,  sweet  potatoes,  and  taro.  Coco-nut,  bread-fruit, 
and  bananas  form  the  staple  food  in  many  islands.  Can- 
nibalism was  prevalent  in  Polynesia  ;  it  was  resorted  to 
sometimes  for  purposes  of  revenge,  sometimes  it  had  a 
magical  significance.  Human  flesh  appears  to  have  been 
eaten  simply  for  food  in  New  Zealand  and  other  places. 


Plate     II.] 


MAORI. 


[Races  of  Man,  p.  2  i. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  29 

The  men  formerly  wore  an  adequate  garment  of  bark  cloth 
(tapa),  and  the  women  an  ample  petticoat  made  of 
native  cloth  or  of  leaves  split  and  coarsely  plaited. 
Ornaments  are  more  sparingly  worn  than  in  Melanesia, 
with  the  exception  of  flowers.  The  houses  are  well 
built,  usually  with  thatched  walls  and  roof,  and  are  oval 
or  oblong  in  form.  The  bow  and  arrow  is  unknown  as  a 
weapon;  short  spears,  slings,  and  wooden  clubs  are  used, 
but  no  shields.  Fishing  is  everywhere  resorted  to,  and 
fish-hooks  are  made  in  great  variety.  Pottery  was 
made  only  in  the  Tonga  and  Easter  Islands.  Mat-making 
and  basketry  are  carried  to  a  fine  art,  as  is  the  making  of 
tapa.  The  old  feather  work  attained  its  greatest  excel- 
lence in  Hawaii.  Large  sailing  double  canoes  were 
formerly  in  use,  and  single  canoes  with  an  outrigger  are 
still  made. 

All  through  Polynesia  the  community  is  divided  into 
nobles  or  chiefs,  freemen  and  slaves,  which  divisions  are 
by  reason  of  taboo  as  sharp  as  those  of  caste.  They  fall 
into  those  which  participate  in  the  divine  and  those 
which  are  wholly  excluded  from  it.  Women  have  a  high 
position,  and  men  do  their  fair  share  of  work.  PohTgyny 
was  universal,  being  limited  only  by  the  wealth  of  the 
husband  or  the  numerical  preponderance  of  the  men. 
The  husband  can  take  nothing  of  his  wife's;  when  he 
dies  she  retains  only  what  he  has  given  her,  his  brother 
being  the  heir.  Mother-right  was  universal,  but  father- 
right  has  begun  in  places,  especially  in  the  families  of 
chiefs.  Children  inherit  their  mother's  rank  and 
property. 

Usually  the  priests  gained  considerable  influence,  and 
there  were  numerous  gods.  In  Samoa  and  Tonga  the 
primitive  gods  were  associated  with  animals,  and  some- 
times entered  their  bodies.  Excluding  Samoa,  gods 
were  worshipped  by  "  idols"  which  were  not  "gods"  but 
"  god-boxes  "  ;  ancestors  were  also  deified.     The  system 


ggc 


30  The  Races  of   Man 

of  taboo  was  carried  to  a  great  excess  in  many  islands. 
Taboo  is  a  Polynesian  word  and  is  said  to  mean  strongly 
marked.  Things  holy  and  things  unclean  are  alike  taboo. 
Tabooed  persons  render  everything  they  touch  taboo  ; 
its  operation  is  always  mechanical,  and  the  intentions  of 
the  taboo-breaker  have  no  effect  upon  the  action  of  the 
taboo. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  31 


AFRICA. 

Africa  proper  begins  south  of  Sahara.  The  northern 
desert  zone  and  the  Mediterranean  area  are  the  home  of 
the  horse.  The  camel  is  the  typical  domestic  animal  of 
the  desert  zone.  At  the  base  of  the  northern  slopes  of 
the  plateau  spiny  shrubs  give  pasturage  for  goats. 
Further  south  the  greater  rainfall  gives  rise  to  a  vigorous 
flora,  and  cows  graze  on  the  luxuriant  grass;  here,  too, 
the  natives  grow  durra  (sorghum) ;  Eleusine  is  grown  in 
the  drier  region  north  of  the  Welle.  The  increased  rain- 
fall of  West  and  Central  Africa  permits  the  growth  of 
dense  forests ;  the  banana  is  the  chief  food  plant,  and  in 
Uganda  it  is  the  staple  food.  The  imported  manioc 
(cassava  or  tapioca)  is  grown  in  West  Central  Africa  and 
south  of  the  Congo  and  north  of  the  Zambezi.  Where 
there  is  sufficient  moisture  on  the  plateaus  of  South 
Africa,  scattered  trees  constitute  a  savanna  (t>ush-veld), 
elsewhere  there  is  only  grass  (grass  or  high  veld)  except 
to  the  west,  where  steppes  culminate  in  the  Kalahari 
Desert,  and  it  is  into  this  inhospitable  country  that  the 
Bushman  has  mainly  retreated. 

There  is  some  evidence  that  at  a  very'early  time  the 
Bushmen  occupied  the  hunting  grounds  of  tropical  East 
Africa,  perhaps  even  to  the  confines  of  Abyssinia.  They 
gradually  passed  southwards,  keeping  along  the  more 
open  grass  lands  of  the  eastern  mountainous  zone,  where 
they  could  still  preserve  their  hunting  method  of  life, 
until,  when  history  dawned  on  the  scene,  they  roamed 
over  most  of  the  territory  south  of  the  Zambezi. 

Culturally,  as  well  as  physically,  the  Hottentots  may 
be  regarded  as  a  blend  of  two  stocks.     They  combined 


32  The  Races  of   Man 

the  cattle-rearing  habits  of  the  Hamites  with  the 
aversion  from  tillage  of  the  soil  characteristic  of  the 
hunter;  they  became  nomadic  herders,  who  were 
stronger  than  the  Bushmen,  but  who  themselves  could 
not  withstand  the  Bantu  when  they  came  in  contact 
with  them,  and  they  too  were  driven  to  less  favourable 
lands. 

The  Hottentot  migration  from  the  eastern  mountainous 
zone  took  place  much  later  than  that  of  the  Bushmen, 
and  it  seems  to  have  been  due  mainly  to  the  pressure 
from  behind  of  the  waxing  Bantu  peoples.  These 
pastoral  nomads  took  a  south-westerly  course  across  the 
savanna  country  south  of  lake  Tanganyika,  and  worked 
their  way  down  the  west  coast  and  along  the  southern 
shore  of  the  continent.  What  is  now  Cape  Colony  was 
inhabited  solely  by  Bushmen  and  Hottentots  at  the  time 
of  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans.  As  the  latter  expanded 
they  drove  the  aborigines  before  them,  but  in  the 
meantime  mongrel  peoples  had  arisen,  mainly  of  Boer- 
Hottentot  parentage,  who  also  were  forced  to  migrate. 
Those  of  the  Cape  Hottentots,  who  were  not  exter- 
minated or  enslaved,  drifted  north  and  found  in 
Bushmanland  an  asylum  from  their  pursuers. 

The  Negril'.oes,  who  primitively  were  probably  related 
to  the  Bushmen,  appear  always  to  have  occupied  the 
tropical  forests  of  Africa.  Their  local  variability  indicates 
a  Negro  mixture. 

The  home  of  the  Negro  appears  to  have  been  the 
Sudan  and  most  of  the  tropical  area,  where  he  practised 
agriculture  and  became  a  great  trader.  That  branch  of 
the  true  Negro  stock  which  spake  the  mother-tongue  of 
the  Bantu  languages  some  3,000  years  ago  (according  to 
Sir  Harry  Johnston's  estimate)  spread  over  the  area  of 
what  is  now  Uganda  and  British  Bast  Africa.  In  the 
forest  region  these  people  probably  mixed  with  Negrilloes, 
and  possibly  with  the  most  northerly  representatives  of 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  33 

the  Bushmen  in  the  high  lands  to  the  east.  Here  also 
they  came  into  contact  with  the  Hamitic  peoples  coming 
down  from  the  north,  and  their  amalgamation  constituted 
a  new  breed  of  Negro — the  Bantu. 

The  Bantu  are  cattle-rearers  who  practise  agriculture. 
A  factor  of  great  importance  in  their  evolution  is  to  be 
found  in  the  great  diversity  of  climate  and  soil  in 
Equatorial  East  Africa.  It  is  a  country  of  small 
plateaus  separated  by  gorges,  or  low-lying  lands.  The 
small  plateaus  are  suitable  for  pasturage,  but  their  extent 
is  limited;  thus  they  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  more  vigorous 
people,  while  the  conquered  had  to  content  themselves 
with  low  country,  and  were  obliged  to  hunt  or  cultivate 
the  land.  In  these  healthy  highlands  the  people 
multiplied,  and  migration  became  necessary;  the  stronger 
and  better-organised  groups  retained  their  flocks  and 
migrated  in  a  southerly  direction,  keeping  to  the 
savannas  and  open  country,  the  line  of  least  resistance 
being  indicated  by  the  relative  social  feebleness  of  the 
peoples  to  the  south.  In  the  small  plateaus  a  nomadic 
life  is  impossible  for  the  herders,  there  being  at  most  a 
seasonal  change  of  pasturage.  This  prevents  the  posses- 
sion of  large  herds  and  necessitates  a  certain  amount  of 
tillage ;  further,  it  would  seem  that  this  mode  of  life  tends 
to  develop  military  organisation  and  a  tribal  system. 

The  north-east  corner  of  Africa,  from  Egypt  to 
Somaliland,  is  the  home  of  the  Hamites.  Essentially 
they  are  a  pastoral  people,  and  therefore  prone  t' 
wander.  In  Uganda,  the  occasionally  polyandric  Bahima 
are  of  Hamitic  descent;  they  are  herdsmen  in  Buganda, 
a  sort  of  aristocracy  in  Unyoro,  a  ruling  caste  in  Toro, 
and  the  dominant  race  with  dynasties  in  Ankole.  The 
dreaded  Masai  of  East  Africa  seem  to  be  a  hybrid 
between  the  Negro  and  Galla.  Another  example  of  the 
predominance  which  a  Hamitic  mixture  usually  engenders 
is  seen  in  the  "  rude  Fullah  shepherds  "  who  overlord  the 


34  The  Races  of   Man 

settled,  industrious,  and  commercial  Negro  Hausas  in 
the  Sudan. 

From  time  immemorial  Semites  have  poured  into 
Africa,  and  the  whole  country  north  of  Sahara  has  been 
largely  Semitised  by  Arabs  of  the  Ishmaelitic  group,  but 
the  Berbers  remain  as  distinct  as  they  can  from  the 
Arabs.  A  similar  process  has  occurred  in  Abyssinia,  but 
by  the  Himyaritic  or  Sabsean  group.  Arab  traders  and 
slave  raiders  have  penetrated  far  into  Africa,  and  have 
modified  the  population  of  the  eastern  coasts. 

The  characters  of  the  pygmies  of  the  equatorial 
forests  of  Africa  are  variable,  and  mixture  with  Negroes 
has  taken  place. 

Negrilloes. 

They  are  a  markedly  intelligent  people,  innately 
musical,  and  cunning,  revengeful,  and  suspicious  in 
disposition  ;  they  never  steal. 

They  are  nomadic  hunters  and  collectors,  never 
resorting  to  agriculture.  They  have  no  domestic 
animals.  Only  meat  is  cooked.  They  wear  no  clothing 
of  any  sort.     They  use  bows  and  poisoned  arrows. 

Their  own  language  is  not  known.  They  live  in  small 
communities  which  centre  round  a  cunning  fighter  or 
able  hunter.  Their  dead  are  buried  in  the  ground. 
Nothing  is  known  of  their  religion. 

Bushmen. 

The  Bushmen,  Khuai  or  San,  have  been  generally  credi- 
ted with  being  vindictive,  passionate,  and  cruel,  but  they 
were  as  a  matter  of  fact  always  friendly  and  hospitable 
to  strangers  till  dispossessed  of  their  hunting  grounds. 
They  were  not  given  to  fighting  one  another,  and  were 
an  unselfish,  merry,  cheerful  race,  with  an  intense  love 
of  freedom. 


•»•"»*. 


Plate  VIII.] 


NEGRILLO,  Kasai  Valley,  Congo. 

[Races  of  Man,  p.  34. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  35 

Being  nomadic  hunters  the  Bushmen  can  only 
attain  to  the  rudiments  of  material  culture.  Their 
clothing  consists  solely  of  a  small  skin,  and  there  is  a 
dearth  of  personal  ornaments ;  necklaces  are,  however, 
made  out  of  the  discs  of  ostrich  eggs.  They  frequently 
cut  off  the  terminal  joint  of  the  little  finger.  Their 
dwellings  are  portable,  mat-covered,  dome-shaped  huts, 
but  they  often  live  in  caves,  the  rock  walls  of  which  they 
are  fond  of  decorating  with  spirited  coloured  representa- 
tions of  men  and  animals;  designs  are  also  chipped  by 
them  on  surfaces  of  exposed  rocks.  For  weapons  they 
have  small  bows  and  poisoned  arrows ;  their  only 
implement  is  a  perforated  rounded  stone,  into  which  a 
stick  is  inserted,  and  this  they  use  for  digging  up 
roots.  A  little  coarse  pottery  is  occasionally  made. 
The  Bushmen  were  never  cannibals.  Cairns  of  stones 
are  erected  over  the  graves  of  their  dead. 

Hottentots. 

The  Hottentots,  or  Khoikhoi,  of  former  days  were 
described  as  mild  and  amiable.  They  were  absolutely 
improvident,  unstable,  and  thoughtless,  and  extra- 
ordinarily dirty  in  every  respect.  Sick  and  infirm 
oersons  and  weak  or  deformed  children  were  abandoned, 
but  they  never  resorted  to  cannibalism. 

They  were  nomadic  herdsmen  who  never  cultivated 
the  soil.  Their  chief  foods  were  milk  from  their  herds, 
the  flesh  of  such  animals  as  died,  which  they  ate  cooked, 
game,  locusts,  and  various  plants  and  fruits.  They  had 
an  intoxicating  drink  made  of  honey,  and  smoked  a  sort 
of  wild  hemp  which  is  a  powerful  intoxicant. 

Both  sexes  had  clothing  made  of  skins  prepared  with 
the  hair  on ;  that  of  the  men  consisted  of  a  skin  flap  in 
the  front  and  a  strip  at  the  back.  Their  ornaments 
consisted  of  copper  trinkets,  and  strings  of  shells  or 
leopards'  teeth  round  the  neck. 


36  The  Races  op   Man 

Their  dwellings  were  portable,  dome-shaped  huts 
covered  with  mats,  with  one  opening.  These  huts  were 
arranged  in  a  circle  round  a  space  used  as  a  fold  for 
cattle.  They  had  wooden  dishes  for  milk,  and  ostrich 
egg-shells  were  used  as  vessels.  Their  weapons  were 
bows  and  poisoned  arrows,  assagais  and  knobkerries  or 
clubbed  sticks  used  as  missiles.  Clumsy  earthenware 
pots  were  made  for  cooking. 

The  Hottentots  were  grouped  in  clans,  each  with  its 
hereditary  chief,  whose  authority,  however,  was  very 
limited.  Several  clans  were  loosely  united  to  form 
tribes.  The  jealousy  between  the  head  men  of  the  clans 
rendered  the  government  very  unstable. 

The  Hottentots  were  polygynous,  a  man  being  allowed 
to  have  as  many  wives  as  he  couid  afford,  who  were 
generally  taken  from  a  different  clan. 

The  right  of  individuals  to  hold  property  apart  from 
the  community  was  recognised,  and  the  possession  of 
wealth  entailed  considerable  influence.  Children  in- 
herited the  property  of  their  fathers. 

The  Hottentots  believed  in  charms,  good  and  evil 
omens,  and  had  a  dread  of  ghosts  and  evil  spirits.  They 
sang  and  danced  to  the  new  moon.  There  was  a  cult  of 
a  mythical  hero  named  Heitsi-eibib  who  has  become 
magnified  into  the  supreme  power  of  good.  There  was 
also  a  powerful  evil  being  named  Gaunab,  who  was 
worsted  by  Heitsi-eibib. 

Negroes. 

In  the  forest  regions  the  people  subsist  mainly  on 
bananas,  fish,  and  game,  though  corn,  yams,  earth-nuts, 
beans,  and  gourds  are  frequently  grown.  In  the  more 
open  country,  millet  is  extensively  grown  together  with 
other  edible  plants.  Hunting  is  everywhere  indulged  in. 
Goats,  pigs,  and  chickens  are  kept  almost  everywhere ; 
cattle   and   horses   are   kept   only   in   the  more  open  or 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  37 

higher  regions,  their  distribution  being  largely  regulated 
by  the  tsetse  fly. 

The  clothing  of  the  Negroes  consists  of  bark-cloth, 
woven  palm-fibre,  and  introduced  cotton,  and  they  are 
much  addicted  to  vegetable  ornaments.  Circumcision  is 
common,  and  the  upper  incisors  are  frequently  knocked 
out.  The  form  of  dwelling  is  the  rectangular  gable- 
roofed  hut ;  their  weapons  include  spears  with  socketed 
heads,  bows  tapering  at  each  end  with  bowstrings  of 
vegetable  products,  swords,  and  plaited  shields,  but  no 
clubs  or  slings.  Among  the  musical  instruments  are 
wooden  drums  and  a  peculiar  form  of  guitar  in  which 
each  string  has  its  own  support.  Head-rests  and  coiled 
basketry  do  not  generally  occur.  Metal-working  is  met 
with  everywhere  and  weaving  is  general ;  earthenware  is 
made  everywhere,  and  leather-working  is  carried  to  a 
fine  art.  The  Negroes  have  always  been  great  traders, 
and  markets  are  held  in  all  towns. 

Among  the  more  primitive  tribes,  the  community  is 
divided  into  exogamous  septs  which  probably  were 
originally  totemic,  and  which  trace  their  descent  from  a 
common  ancestress.  Polygyny  is  universal  when  a  man 
can  afford  it,  but  the  first  wife  takes  precedence  of  the 
rest.  Usually  descent  is  in  the  female  line,  but 
occasionally  it  is  reckoned  through  the  father,  in  which 
case  the  sons  inherit  his  property.  Slavery  is  not  so 
abject  a  condition  as  is  often  the  case.  Slaves  may  be 
war-captives,  or  a  man  may  pawn  himself  or  his 
relatives  into  slavery.  Domestic  slaves  may  inherit 
property. 

Secret  societies  flourish  in  West  Africa  in  which 
masks  are  employed.  These  societies  are  powerful 
engines  for  the  regulation  of  society  and  punishment  of 
ill-doers,  although  at  times  their  power  is  abused.  Very 
frequently  the  women  also  have  secret  societies  which 
support  their  interests. 


38  The  Races  of  Man 

Fetishism  is  universal;  the  fetish  may  consist  of  any 
object  whatsoever;  it  is  accredited  with  mysterious 
power  owing  to  its  being  temporarily  or  permanently  the 
vessel  or  habitation  or  instrument  of  some  unseen  power 
or  spirit.  It  may  act  by  the  will  or  force  of  its  own 
power  or  spirit,  or  by  force  of  a  foreign  power  enterin 
in  or  acting  on  it  from  without.  It  is  worshipped, 
prayed  to,  sacrificed  to,  and  petted  or  ill-treated 
according  to  its  behaviour. 

Animism,  the  belief  in  everything  in  nature  being 
animated  by  an  indwelling  spirit  of  its  own,  is  said  to  be 
prevalent.  Some  deities  are  local,  but  there  are 
frequently  other  deities  of  the  sky,  of  the  earthquake,  and 
so  forth.  Priests  occur  everywhere,  but  it  is  only  among 
the  more  civilised  peoples  that  they  acquire  power. 
A  cult  of  ancestors  is  met  with  in  all  parts. 

Bantus. 

The  Bantu  peoples  may  be  roughly  divided  according 
to  culture  into  two  groups:  a  western  zone,  which  skirts 
the  West  African  region  or  the  Congo  basin  and  extends 
through  Angola  and  German  West  Africa  into  Cape 
Colony;  and  an  eastern  zone.  (1)  The  western  Bantu 
zone  is  characterised  by  beehive  huts,  the  absence  of 
circumcision,  and  the  presence  of  wooden  shields  (plain 
or  covered  with  cane-work)  in  its  northern  portion, 
though  skin  shields  occur  to  the  south.  (2)  In  the 
eastern  Bantu  zone,  except  among  the  Zulu  peoples,  the 
huts  are  cylindrical,  with  a  separate  conical  roof. 
Certain  characteristics  are  typical  of  the  Bantu  culture 
as  a  whole.  The  natives  live  in  rounded  huts  with 
•pointed  roofs.  The  domestic  animals  include  the  dog, 
goat,  and  sheep  and  cattle  are  found  wherever  possible. 
Clothing  is  of  skin  and  leather,  and  there  is  a  pre- 
dominance of  animal  ornaments;  knocking  out  or  filing 


; 


Distribution  of  Races  and   Peoples  39 

of  incisors  is  general  except  in  the  south;  circumcision  is 
common,  though  among  the  Zulu  tribes  it  seems  to  be 
dying  out.  Their  weapons  comprise  spears,  in  which 
the  head  is  fastened  into  the  shaft  by  a  spike,  bows  with 
bowstrings  of  animal  products,  clubs  and  skin  shields, 
but  slings  are  usually  absent.  Coiled  basketry  is  made, 
and  head-rests  are  a  characteristic  feature. 

Totemism  once  existed,  but  now  only  occurs  in  certain 
tribes.  Ancestor-worship  is  the  prevalent  form  of 
religion;  fetishism  and  polytheism  are  undeveloped. 
Masks  and  representations  of  human  figures  are  rare, 
and  there  are  no  secret  societies,  though  secluded 
initiation  ceremonies  may  be  held.  Anthropophagy  is 
sporadic  and  usually  temporary. 

The  Bantu  are  cattle-rearers  who  practise  agriculture. 
This  duality  of  occupation  led  to  variability  in  mode  of 
life.  In  some  places  the  land  invited  the  population 
towards  husbandry,  in  others  the  physical  conditions 
were  more  suited  to  a  pastoral  life,  and  thus  we  find 
settled  agricultural  tribes  on  the  one  hand  and  wandering 
herders  on  the  other.  The  Bantu  peoples  easily  adopt 
changes  of  custom ;  under  the  leadership  of  a  warlike 
chief  they  become  warlike  and  cruel,  a  common  char- 
acteristic of  pastoral  peoples.  The  history  of  the  prolific 
Bantu  peoples  on  the  whole  indicates  that  they  were  as 
loosely  attached  to  the  soil  as  were  the  Ancient  Germans, 
and,  like  the  latter,  at  the  slightest  provocation,  they 
would  abandon  their  country  and  seek  another  home. 
This  readiness  to  migrate  is  the  direct  effect  of  a  pastoral 
life,  and  along  with  this  legacy  of  unrest  their  Hamitic 
ancestors  transmitted  a  social  organisation  which  lent 
itself  to  discipline. 


40  The  Races  of  Man 


EUROPE. 

The  population  of  Europe  may  be  briefly  described  as 
consisting  of  an  indigenous  white  population  and  intrusive 
Asiatic  peoples. 

In  classifying  the  Europeans  proper,  the  most  im- 
portant physical  features  to  be  noted  are  the  cephalic 
index,  pigmentation,  and  stature.  The  cephalic  index 
ranges  from  62  to  103,  but  the  limit  of  variation  in 
definite  groups  is  much  more  restricted.  Pigmentation 
in  Europe  is  mainly  considered  with  regard  to  the  colour  of 
hair  and  eyes.  Dark  hair  and  dark  eyes  constitute  pure 
brunet  types;  fair  hair  and  light  eyes,  pure  blond  types; 
their  relative  frequency  is  expressed  in  percentages. 
Pig  nentation  shades  from  54%  of  pure  blond  types  in 
Sweden  to  96%  of  pure  brunet  types  in  Greece.  Stature 
appears  to  be  of  less  importance ;  it  varies  from  a 
preponderance  of  heights  about  l*6m.  (5ft.  3in.)  in 
Sardinia  to  l*792m.  (5ft.  lOfin.)  in  Galloway  (South-west 
Scotland). 

Judged  by  these  characters,  the  bulk  of  the  existing 
population  of  true  Europeans  can  be  divided  into  three 
main  groups: — (1)  Tail,  fair,  dolichocephals  in  the  north, 
(2)  Short  or  tall,  medium-coloured,  brachycephals  in  the 
centre ;  and  (3)  Short,  dark,  dolichocephals  in  the  south. 
During  and  since  neolithic  times  the  Nordic  (Northern), 
Alpine,  and  Mediterranean  "races"  have  existed  in 
northern,  central,  and  southern  Europe,  but  various 
movements  and  mixtures  of  portions  of  these  three 
groups  have  occurred  which  have  greatly  complicated 
European  racial  ethnology. 

The  Asiatic  elements  in   Europe  are  confined  to  its 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  41 

eastern  portion  ;    they  belong  to  the  Ugrian,  Turki  and 
Mongol  divisions  of  the  Ural-Altaians. 

Northern  Europe  : — 

Scandinavia. — There  are  three  distinct  racial  elements 
in  Scandinavia : — 

1.  The  Lapps  are  Ugrians  of  Asiatic  origin  who 
lived  in  the  north  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  but 
formerly  they  extended  further  to  the  South. 

2.  Northern  Race,  in  greatest  purity  over  the 
greater  part  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark. 

3.  Round  the  south  of  Sweden,  the  south  and 
west  coast  of  Norway,  and  on  the  opposite  shores  of 
Denmark,  is  a  brachycephalic  type  (index  80-83)i 
with  darker  hair  and  eye  colour,  and  shorter  stature, 
thus  indicating  a  mixture  with  the  Alpine  Race. 

British  Isles. — Mainly  inhabited  by  members  of  the 
Northern  and  Mediterranean  Races,  with  traces  of 
Alpine  Race.  The  cephalic  index  is  uniformly  77-78. 
The  Northern  elements  are  more  pronounced  on 
north  and  east  of  Britain,  with  fair  colouring  and 
tall  stature.  The  Mediterranean  elements  persist  in 
Inverness,  Argyle,  Wales,  Cornwall,  an  area  north 
of  London,  the  Fen  country,  and  largely  in  Ireland, 
with  darker  colouring  and  shorter  stature.  Traces 
of  Alpine  elements  occur  in  Fife,  East  Lothian, 
Aberdeen,  Shetland  Islands,  Faroe  Islands,  and  the 
north-west  coast  of  Ireland,  with  a  cephalic  index 
of  79-81. 

Central  Europe  : — 

France.  —  Two  axes  of  fertility,  from  Flanders  to 
Bordeaux,  and  along  the  Rhone  valley,  separate 
four  less  attractive  areas  :  the  Ardennes  plateau, 
Auvergne,  Savoy,  and  Brittany.  These  areas  are 
occupied  by  the  Alpine  Race,  with  a  cephalic  index 


42  The  Races  of  Man 

of  83-87,  medium  colouring,  and  short  stature, 
especially  in  Auvergne.  The  axes  of  fertility  are 
occupied  by  the  Northern  Race  to  the  north,  and 
the  Mediterranean  Race  to  the  south ;  the  cephalic 
index  ranges  from  79  to  83  ;  blondness  and  stature 
decrease  from  north  to  south. 

In  Dordogne  a  type  is  met  with  which  has  a 
cephalic  index  of  76  to  78,  a  low  vault,  broad  face, 
prominent  cheekbones,  dark  colouring,  and  a  medium 
stature.  This  is  regarded  as  a  survival  of  the 
Cro-Magnon  type,  which  dates  from  late  Palaeolithic 
times. 

In  Brittany,  the  fringe  of  Northern  Race  round 
the  coast  is  due  to  Saxon  invasions,  especially 
noticeable  in  the  predominance  of  fair  types  in 
Morbihan.  There  are  traces  of  a  Cornish  settlement 
near  Dinan. 

The  Basques  are  placed  by  Deniker  in  his  Littoral 
or  Atlanto -Mediterranean  Race.  They  are  brachy- 
ccphalic  (index  83)  north  of  the  Pyrenees ;  and 
mesaticephalic  (index  77-79)  south  of  the  Pyrenees  ; 
the  dividing  line  being  over  the  north  slope  of  the 
range.  The  facial  features  found  among  both  types 
are  a  triangular  face,  broad  temples,  long  pointed 
chin,  long  thin  nose,  dark  hair,  dark  eyes  rather 
close  together,  and  a  stature  of  l*65m.  to  l*674m. 
(5ft.  5in.  to  5ft.  6in.).  The  Basques  are  generally 
regarded  as  a  variety  of  the  Mediterranean  Race. 

Switzerland. — The  Alpine  Race  is  predominant,  and  the 
Northern  Race  subordinate  ;  cephalic  index  87  ;  hair 
and  eye  colour  medium;  stature,  l*67m.  (5ft.  5|in.). 

Belgium. — The  Flemings  of  the  northern  plains  belong 
to  the  Northern  Race  ;  cephalic  index  79.  The 
Walloons  of  the  southern  uplands  are  members  of 
the  Alpine  Race  ;  cephalic  index  82. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  43 

Netherlands. — Northern  Race  predominates.  A  brachy- 
cephalic  element  (index  83-87)  occurs  in  the 
provinces  of  Noord-Holland  and  Zeeland. 

Germany. — The  Northern  Race  is  paramount  in  the 
northern  plains,  and  the  Alpine  Race  prevails  in 
the  southern  uplands ;  there  is  a  decrease  in 
dolichocephaly,  blondness  and  height  from  north  to 
south. 

Austria- Hungary  contains  several  racial  elements  : — 

In  Austria  proper  and  Salzburg,  traits  of  the 
Northern  Race  predominate.  The  cephalic  index 
varies  from  79  to  81,  and  blond  types  are  frequent ; 
the  average  stature  is  about  l*65m.  to  l-67m. 
(5ft.  5in.  to  5ft.  5jin.).  Elsewhere  the  cephalic 
index  ranges  from  83  to  86 ;  darker  types  prevail ; 
the  stature  in  the  east  averages  l-62m.  to  l*64m, 
(5ft.  3|in.  to  5ft.  4£in.).  A  tall  type  (Deniker's 
Adriatic  or  Dinaric  Race)  occurs  in  the  south,  the 
stature  of  which  averages  from  l-68m.  to  l#72m. 
(5ft.  6in.  to  5ft.  7f  in.) ;  it  is  brachycephalic  (index 
81-86),  and  has  dark  hair  and  a  narrow  straight 
nose.  Thus  the  Cevenole  and  Anatolian  varieties 
of  the  Alpine  Race  are  present  in  Austria. 

Hungary. — The  Magyars  were  originally  of 
Finno-Ugrian  origin  (p.  49).  The  Finno-Ugrian  type 
is  brachycephalic  or  mesaticephalic,  with  projecting 
cheek-bones,  straight  or  concave  nose,  yellowish 
white  skin ;  straight  brown  hair,  and  short  stature. 
The  Magyars  have,  however,  assimilated  to  a 
European  type ;  their  cephalic  index  is  probably  84, 
they  have  a  moderately  dark  colouring,  and  medium 
stature,  l-619m.  to  l-646m.  (5ft.  3Jin.  to  5ft.  4 Jin.). 


44  The  Races  op  Man 

Easterv  Europe  : — 

Russia. — Three    racial    elements   occur,  the    Northern 
Alpine,  and  Ural- Altaian  : — 

1.  To  the  Northern  Race  belong  the  Letto- 
Lithuanians,  with  a  cephalic  index  77-80,  tall 
stature,  a  long  face,  and  fair  colouring,  67%  being 
pure  blonds. 

2.  To  the  Alpine  Race  belong  the  three  main 
groups  of  Russians: — 

(i)  The  Great  Russians  in  the  north,  east,  and 
centre  are  brachycephalic  (index  82),  with  a 
square  face,  heavy  features,  reddish  blond  hair, 
orange-brown  eyes,  and  a  stature  averaging 
l-64m.  (5ft.  4£in.). 

(ii)  The  Little  Russians  in  the  south,  on  the 
Black  Mould  belt,  have  a  cephalic  index  of  82-83, 
darker  colouring,  and  taller  stature. 

(iii)  The  White  Russians  in  the  west,  between 
Poland  and  Lithuania,  have  a  cephalic  index  of 
82;  they  are  the  fairest  of  the  three  groups,  and 
are  of  medium  height. 

The  Polesians  of  the  Pinsk  marshes,  with  a 
cephalic  index  of  82-83;  straight  flaxen  hair,  and 
short  stature,  l*635m.  (5ft.  4Jin.);  constitute 
Deniker's  Oriental  Race. 

The  Poles  mainly  belong  to  the  Alpine  Race  ;  their 
cephalic  index  varies  from  80  in  the  west  to  83  in 
the  east,  they  are  moderately  fair,  and  of  very  short 
stature,  161m.  (5ft.  3£in.).  They  belong  to  Deniker's 
Vistulian  Race. 

3.  Three  branches  of  the  Ural- Altaian  are 
represented : — 

(i)  To  the  Mongols  belong  the  Kalmuks  between 
the  Don  and  the  Dnieper. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  45 

(ii)  To  the  Turki  belong  the  Kirghiz  round  the 
north  and  west  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Volga 
Tatars  to  the  east  of  Russia,  and  the  Crimean 
Tatars  to  the  south. 

(iii)  To  various  divisions  of  the  Ugrians  belong 
the  Lapps  and  the  Finns  to  the  north-west,  and 
the  Samoyads  and  others  to  the  north-east. 
Many  of  these  groups  have  entirely  lost  their 
"  Mongolian "  character,  e.g.,  the  Finns.  The 
Finns  as  a  whole  are  mesaticephalic  (index  76-77) 
to  brachycephalic  (index  81-82).  They  are 
divisible  into  two  main  groups : — 

(i.)  The  Karelians  in  the  east  are  less  brachy- 
cephalic, have  chestnut  hair,  straight  grey  eyes, 
brown  complexion,  and  are  tall  and  slim. 

(ii.)  The  Tavastians,  in  the  west,  are  more 
brachycephalic,  with  light  flaxen  or  tow -coloured 
hair,  small  and  slightly  oblique  blue  eyes,  a  white 
complexion,  and  are  short,  broad,  and  thick  set. 

Balkan  States. — Mixed  peoples,  mainly  of  Alpine, 
Finno-Ugrian  and  Turki  origin,  prevail  in  the 
Balkan  States. 

The  Roumanians  consist  of  Turki  and  Slav  (Alpine 
Race)  elements;  the  cephalic  index  ranges  from  79 
on  the  east  coast  to  85  in  the  west,  rising  in 
places  to  87*8 ;  with  dark  colouring,  and  a  stature  of 
l'638m.  (5ft.  4£in.).  They  speak  a  Romance 
language. 

The  Bulgarians  contain  Ugrian  and  Slav  elements; 
their  cephalic  index  is  78  on  the  coast,  and  85  in  the 
west;  they  have  a  broad,  flattish  face;  black  hair; 
small  slant  eyes;  and  a  stature  of  l*63m.  (5ft.  4^in.)> 
with  heavy  figures.     They  speak  a  Slav  language. 


46  The  Races  of  Man 

The  Albanians  are  Southern  Slavs;  they  are 
hyper-brachycephalic  (index  rising  to  89),  relatively 
blond,  with  a  stature  of  l'68m.  (5ft.  6in.).  Their 
language  is  derived  from  the  old  Illyrian,  a  proto- 
Aryan  dialect.  Deniker  places  them  in  his  Adriatic 
or  Dinaric  Race. 

The  Turks  are  brachiocephalic,  with  a  cephalic 
index  of  85-87,  a  cuboid  head,  elongated  oval  face, 
straight,  somewhat  prominent  nose ;  yellowish  white 
complexion;  dark  hair;  and  dark  non-Mongoloid 
eyes;  they  are  of  moderately  tall  stature,  1  "675111. 
(5ft.  6in.),  with  a  tendency  to  obesity.  Of  Turki 
origin. 

Southern  Europe  : — 

Greece. — The  indigenous  Mediterranean  Race  has  been 
overlaid  by  the  Alpine  Race;  cephalic  index  81; 
smooth  oval  face,  rather  narrow  and  high ;  nose 
straight,  thin,  and  high ;  uniformly  dark  hair  and 
eyes;  stature  l-626m.  (5ft.  4in.). 

Italy. — The  Alpine  Race  occurs  in  the  basin  of  the  Po, 
between  the  Apennines  and  the  Alps;  cephalic  index 
83-87;  with  fair  to  medium  colouring,  and  often  light 
brown  hair  and  eyes;  the  stature  averages  l*645m. 
(5ft.  4fin.),  but  is  taller  towards  the  north.  The 
Mediterranean  Race  occupies  the  peninsula;  the 
cephalic  index  ranges  from  84  in  the  north  to  77-78 
in  the  south ;  brunet  types  increase  in  frequency  to 
over  60%  in  the  south ;  and  the  stature  falls  to 
l*55m.  (5ft.  lin.)  in  the  south.  There  are  traces  of 
the  Northern  Race  in  Lombardy. 


Distribution  of  Races  antd  Peoples  47 

Spain. — Mainly  inhabited  by  the  Mediterranean  Race ; 
the  physical  characters  are  fairly  uniform.  The 
cephalic  index  is  pretty  generally  76-79,  but  in  the 
north-west  mountains  it  is  broader,  79-80;  dark  hair 
and  eyes;  the  stature  averages  about  l*62m.  to 
l'66m.  (5ft.  3fin.  to  5ft.  5in.),  increasing  from  the 
centre  towards  the  coast. 


48  The  Races  of  Man 


ASIA. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  Central  and  Northern 
Asia  is  very  imperfect,  and  owing  to  the  great  move- 
ments of  peoples  that  have  taken  place,  the  racial 
history  is  a  peculiarly  difficult  problem.  A  further 
source  of  uncertainty  is  the  indefinite  manner  in  which 
racial  terms  have  been  employed.  The  following  sketch, 
therefore,  must  be  regarded  as  tentative. 

The  aboriginal  population  of  Northern  Asia  belongs  to 
that  group  to  which  the  name  Ural-Altaic  is  frequently 
applied.  This  term  was  designed  to  express  linguistic 
affinities,  and  though  the  group  extends  beyond  its 
geographical  significance,  it  will  be  provisionally  adopted, 
for  want  of  a  better  designation.  These  people  are  also 
usually  called  Mongols  or  Northern  Mongols.  The  term 
Mongol  appears  to  have  been  originally  given  to  a  horde 
of  aggressive  nomads  who  were  recruited  from  Turki, 
Oghuz  and  Tungus  tribes.  Latterly  it  has  been  so 
employed  as  to  embrace  all  the  brachycephalic,  straight- 
haired  peoples  of  Asia,  who  have  a  more  or  less 
yellowish  skin,  frequently  high  cheek-bones,  and  often  a 
peculiar  kind  of  eye,  which  may  be  also  oblique. 

The  short,  western,  and  northern  Ural-Altaians  form 
one  division,  which  includes  such  peoples  as  the  Ugrians 
(in  part),  Pal&asiatics,  some  of  the  Tungus,  and  the  true 
Mongols.  The  taller  eastern  Ural-Altaians  include  the 
Manchu-Koreans,  but  amongst  these  a  race  mixture  may 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  49 

be  suspected.  The  Finno-Ugrians  and  Turki  are  of 
mixed  descent. 

In  prehistoric  times  there  appears  to  have  been  an 
extension  of  dolichocephalic  peoples  (a  branch  of  which 
group  occurred  along  the  plains  of  Europe)  right  across 
Asia,  of  which  the  Ainus  may  be  modified  descendants, 
and  whose  influence  may  be  detected  among  the  Manchus 
and  upper  class  Tungus.  This  presumed  migration  does 
not  appear  to  have  effected  much  in  the  way  of  civilisa- 
tion ;  probably  because  the  people  were  in  a  low  stage  of 
culture  and  lived  under  unfavourable  conditions. 

There  was  probably  a  later  extension  of  dolichocephals 
more  nearly  related  to  the  Nordic  race  of  Europe.  The 
Chinese  annals  tell  of  red-haired,  blue-eyed  tribes  in 
Central  Asia,  of  wThich  the  Wusuns  were  one,  and  recent 
excavations  in  Chinese  Turkistan  have  demonstrated  the 
former  occurrence  of  this  type  in  that  region.  They 
were  of  better  physique  and  greater  energy  than  the  older 
dolichocephals,  and  appear  to  have  belonged  to  that  race 
which  many  ethnologists  term  Aryan,  but  Kingsmill*  has 

*  "  In  the  old  Iranian  cosmogony  Feridun  (Thraetaona,  the 
Vedic  Traitona),  had  three  sons,  Cairima,  Tuirya,  and  Airya, 
the  eponyms  respectively  of  the"  Cairimyans  (Sauromats), 
Tuiryans  (Turanians),  i.e.,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
Pamirs  and  the  basin  of  Eastern  Turkistan,  and  the  Aryans 
(these  last  forming,  however,  only  one  of  the  many  families 
comprised  by  modern  ethnologists  under  the  general  term 
Aryan).  As  Feridun  is  always  in  the  Iranian  legend  the 
'  Athwyan,'  i.e.,  the  descendant  of  Athwya,  I  have  suggested 
the  term  Athwyan  to  cover  the  entire  section  of  the  blond  race 
now  roughly  known  as  Aryan,  and  would  reserve  the  latter 
term  for  the  first  stream  of  the  immigrants  into  India  some 
eighteen  centuries  B.C.  and  their  immediate  relations,  especi- 
ally the  Iranians." 

(T.  \V.  Kingsmill,  Jul.  China  Branch  Ray.  Asiatic  Soc, 

XXXVII,  1906,  p.  35.) 


50  The  Races  of   Man 

proposed   the    term    Athwyan    for   the    Aryan  group  of 
peoples,  and  Turanian  for  this  particular  branch. 

The  Finno-Ugrian  and  Turki  peoples  may  very  well 
have  arisen  from  a  crossing  between  Ural-Altaians  and 
Athwyans.  This  perhaps  might  help  to  account  for  the 
degree  of  culture  arrived  at  by  the  Proto-Finns  in  their 
Asiatic  home  in  Altai,  and  of  that  of  the  Hiung-nu  and 
Uigurs. 

A  mixture  of  races  has  also  occurred  in  South-eastern 
Asia.  The  yellow-skinned  brachycephals,  for  whom 
Kingsmill  proposes  the  name  of  Pareceans,  are  the  Indo- 
Chinese,  or  Southern  Mongols,  of  most  authors.  There  is 
good  evidence  of  an  entirely  distinct  race,  characterised 
by  fine  features,  straight  eyes,  and  probably  a  narrow 
head,  inhabiting  parts  of  Southern  China,  and  it  seems 
to  have  a  wide  range  in  that  part  of  Asia.  The  Man-tse 
of  Yun-nan  and  Se-chuen  (who  are  described  as  tall, 
graceful,  with  a  brownish  but  not  yellow  skin,  the 
colour  of  the  hair  has  a  tendency  to  chestnut  and  is 
sometimes  wavy,  face  oval,  cheek-bones  but  slightly 
prominent,  nose  elevated  and  moderately  broad,  eyes 
large,  level,  with  no  fold  of  the  upper  eyelid),  are 
descendants  of  this  race,  which  is  probably  allied  to  the 
Indonesian  stock. 

The  Chinese  are  Parea^an  at  base  with  other  mixtures. 
Many  students  believe  that  the  progressive  element  of 
the  old  Chinese  civilisation  was  due  to  a  migration 
of  a  semi-cultured  people  from  Chinese  Turkistan  or 
even,  originally,  from  further  west.  The  Japanese  are 
also  Pareseans  (Indo-Chinese)  with  a  strong  Korean 
blend,  and  in  places  with  a  substratum  of  Ainu  blood. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Pboples  51 

The  Negrito  race  must  in  early  days  have  had  a  greater 
extension  in  the  extreme  south-east  of  Asia  and  in  the 
East  Indian  Archipelago  than  occurs  at  present.  The 
Melanesians  have  left  no  trace  of  their  assumed  ancient 
passage,  except  in  the  south  of  the  Archipelago.  The 
Sakai,  the  Batin  of  Sumatra  and  the  Toala  of  Celebes  have 
been  recognised  as  belonging  to  the  Pre-Dravidian  race, 
and  they  may  be  regarded  as  being  vestiges  of  the 
Australian  migration.  The  existing  population  of  the 
Archipelago,  with  exceptions  just  noted,  consists  mainly 
of  varying  degrees  of  mixture  of  dolichocephalic 
Indonesians  with  brachy cephalic  Proto-Malays.  In  some 
places  there  has  also  been  a  slight  Arab  influence ;  in 
others,  Dravidians  from  India  on  the  one  hand  and 
Chinese  on  the  other  have  definitely  modified  the 
population. 

The  brachycephals  south  of  the  Himalayas  are  more 
closely  related  to  the  Tibetans  than  to  the  Indo-Chinese. 
Keane  distinguishes  three  racial  elements  among  the 
Tibetans : — The  Bod-pa,  the  settled  and  more  or  less 
civilized  section,  who  occupy  most  of  the  southern  and 
more  fertile  provinces.  The  Dru-pa,  peaceful,  semi- 
nomadic  pastoral  tribes  of  the  northern  plateaus.  The 
Tanguts,  predatory  tribes  who  hover  about  the  north- 
eastern borderland. 

The  ethnological  history  of  India  is  dealt  with  on 
pages  56-60. 

The  plateaus  of  Western  Asia  appear  to  have  been 
originally  inhabited  by  the  Alpine  Race.  "Aryans," 
allied  to  the  Aryas  who  entered  North-east  India,  have 
over-lorded  Persia,  and  for  ages  Turki  tribes  have  poured 


52  The  Races  op  Man 

over  the  whole  area  from  the  north-east,  and  Semites 
have  encroached  from  the  south,  while  the  littoral  of 
Asia  Minor  has  always  been  more  or  less  occupied  by 
Mediterraneans.  It  is  significant  that  the  Sumers,  who 
founded  the  earliest  Babylonian  civilisation,  were  possibly 
of  Turki  origin;  they  soon  became  Semitised,  but  the 
civilisation  was  pre-Semitic. 


Ural-Altaians. 

Nearly  the  whole  breadth  of  Central  Asia,  excluding 
the  deserts  and  mountains,  is  a  grass-clad  region  in 
which  cattle-keeping  is  the  natural  industry.  In  the 
inhospitable  regions  to  the  north,  grass  is  replaced  by 
the  lichen  generally  known  as  "  reindeer  moss." 
Horses,  sheep,  goats,  cows,  and  camels  are  kept  in 
the  steppe  region,  while  reindeer  alone  can  exist  on 
the  tundra.  The  latter  region  is  inhabited  by  wandering 
tribes  who  depend  more  or  less  on  the  reindeer  for 
their  existence.  The  Lapps,  and  the  tribes  living  in 
the  tundra  of  North  Russia,  are  in  a  similar  condition. 
Both  the  steppe  and  the  tundra  necessitate  a  nomadic 
life,  and  this  fact  has  had  a  profound  effect  on  the 
history  of  Asia.  The  desiccation  of  Central  Asia  has 
caused  migration  from  lands  that  were  formerly  more 
fertile,  and  this  was  facilitated  by  the  mobile  habits 
of  the  pastoral  peoples.  The  inroads  of  the  hordes 
of  this  origin  into  India,  Western  Asia,  and  Eastern 
Europe  have  left  a  deep  mark  alike  in  racial  distribution, 
history,  and  tradition. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  53 

Herders  on  the  Steppes. 

The  Khalkas  are  a  good  type  of  a  purely  nomadic 
people. 

The  only  two  modes  of  sustenance  possible  to  them 
are  hunting  and  herding,  and  these  are  facilitated  by  the 
fact  that  they  possess  the  horse  as  a  domestic  animal. 
As  a  result  of  these  occupations,  the  men  are  fine 
horsemen  and  extremely  hardy;  they  are,  however,  prone 
to  idleness.  The  women's  work  consists  in  milking 
twice  daily,  taking  charge  of  the  beasts  at  foaling  time, 
house-work,  needlework,  the  manufacture  of  household 
utensils,  tanning  leather,  fulling  wool,  and  making 
illuminant,  soap,  and  dyes.  All  the  labour  of  shifting 
the  camp  falls  upon  them. 

In  their  organisation  the  unit  is  the  family,  and  above 
this  the  sole  grouping  is  the  tribe,  which  is  practically 
the  union  of  families  of  common  origin.  Authority  is 
vested  in  the  old  men,  of  whom  the  patriarch  is  chief; 
he  combines  the  functions  of  father,  teacher,  magistrate, 
priest,  and  sovereign,  being  the  depositary  of  traditions 
and  the  supreme  judge.  Otherwise  there  is  essential 
equality  between  men.  Children  are  numerous,  and 
have  a  profound  veneration  for  their  father,  from  whom 
age  does  not  enfranchise  them.  There  is  no  government 
external  to  the  family. 

Property  consists  of  cattle.  There  is  no  personal 
ownership  of  land  otherwise  than  the  temporary 
possession  constituted  by  usage  of  it. 

Shamanism  is  the  basis  of  their  religion,  but  it  is 
overlaid  by  Buddhism.  Filial  piety  characterises  later 
religious  developments. 


54  The  Racbs  of  Man 

Herders  on  the  Tundra. 

There  are  four  groups  of  peoples  living  in  the 
tundra  : — 

(1)  The  purely  pastoral  peoples  who  possess  herds  of 
domesticated  reindeer  and  live  on  their  milk  and  flesh — 
Samoyads,  etc. 

(2)  The  pastoral  groups  whose  herds  of  reindeer  are 
insufficient  to  support  life.  This  may  result  from 
epidemics  or  from  the  cantonment  system  established  by 
the  Russian  Government;  the  limitation  of  pasturing 
rights  necessitates  a  reduction  in  the  number  of  the 
reindeer,  and  the  few  that  remain  are  too  precious  to  be 
used  for  food.  The  means  of  subsistence  have  to  be 
supplemented  by  hunting,  fishing  and  trading — Tungus, 
Yakuts,  etc. 

(3)  The  peoples  who  possess  the  most  numerous  herds 
of  reindeer  of  all  the  tundra  tribes.  These  animals  are 
not  tame,  they  cannot  be  milked  and  are  not  of  much  use 
for  transport,  but  they  are  bred  in  large  numbers  for  food 
and  trade — Chukchis  and  Koryaks. 

(4)  Those  who  have  no  reindeer  and  have  to  support 
a  miserable  existence  by  hunting,  fishing  and  trading; 
they  are  often  dependent  on  other  groups — Chukchis, 
Gilyaks,    and    many    remnants    of   other    tribes. 

The  poverty  of  the  soil  and  rapid  exhaustion  of  the  food 
necessitate  frequent  changes  of  pasturage.  In  winter 
the  herds  descend  into  the  plains  and  valleys  ;  in  summer 
they  retreat  to  the  hills,  partly  to  escape  from  the 
mosquitoes.     Herders  of  reindeer  lead  a  more  wandering 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  55 

life  than  other  pastors.     It  is  a  poor  living,  ten  reindeer 
giving  only  as  much  milk  as  one  cow. 

The  Chukchis  rarely  have  more  than  one  wife,  who  is 
earned  by  working  for  her  for  a  year  or  more  in  the  camp 
of  the  prospective  father-in-law.  The  women  are  treated 
as  equals,  the  children  are  well-behaved,  and  there  is 
great  family  affection.  The  poorer  Ostyaks  marry  only 
one  wife,  but  the  rich  look  upon  it  as  a  right  to  have  two 
or  more.  Among  them  too  the  children  are  dutiful,  and 
there  is  great  family  affection.  The  Samoyad  wife  has 
equal  rights  with  her  husband  and  is  treated 
accordingly. 

There  is  no  government  among  the  Chukchis  and  no 
chiefs  other  than  the  fictitious  chiefs  appointed  by  the 
Russians,  who  possess  no  power.  The  people  live  in  a 
state  of  anarchy,  yet  the  greatest  unanimity  prevails. 

When  the  Russian  Government  does  not  interfere  the 
grazing  grounds  are  open  to  all.  Reindeer  constitute  the 
real  property ;  three  hundred  will  suffice  for  a  Lapp 
family,  a  Lapp  with  a  herd  of  five  thousand  is  a  veritable 
capitalist;  the  poorest  have  only  half-a-dozen. 

Shamanism  is  prevalent  throughout  the  district. 
The  Coast  Chukchis  have  no  noteworthy  religion ; 
among  them  there  is  no  crime  except  that  committed 
under  the  influence  of  liquor.  The  Ostyaks  believe  that 
a  dead  man  continues  to  lead  a  spirit  life  among  the 
living;  his  reward  is  to  do  good,  his  punishment  to  do 
evil  to  his  living  relatives.  Many  Samoyads  are  nominal 
Christians  so  long  as  things  go  well  with  them. 


56  The  Races  of   Man 

India. 

India  broadly  speaking  is  divided  into  three  main  geogra- 
phical areas: — (1)  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalaya, 
inhabited  by  broad-headed  peoples  who  possess  most  of 
the  character  described  as  "  Mongolian  ;"  (2)  the  valleys 
of  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges;  (3)  the  Deccan  or  central 
and  southern  tableland.  These  areas  are  inhabited  by 
dolichocephalic  peoples  except  for  a  group  of  brachy- 
cephalic  peoples  who  extend  in  a  broad  band  down  the 
west  coast  of  India  from  the  lower  waters  of  the  Indus  to 
about  latitude  12°  N. 

The  languages  fall  into  three  main  divisions: — 
(1)  Aryan  (Sanskrit,  Pali,  and  Prakit  w7ith  its  modern 
derivatives  Hindi,  Bengali,  etc.,  and  Sinhali).  (2)  Dravid- 
ian  (Tamil,  Telugu,  Malayalim,  etc.).  (3)  The  Munda 
languages  belong  to  the  Mon- Khmer  family.  Schmidt 
calls  this  group  of  languages  Austroasiatic,  which  with 
the  Austronesian  (Melanesian,  Polynesian,  Malay,  etc.) 
form  his  Austric  linguistic  family. 

When  the  Aryas  entered  India  from  the  north-west, 
some  2,000  years  B.C.,  they  first  occupied  the  fertile 
lands  of  the  Punjab;  their  progress  south-west  being 
barred  by  the  deserts  of  Raj pu tana  they  passed  into  the 
valleys  of  the  Jumna  and  Ganges,  where  they  found  the 
Naga,  yellow  peoples  who  had  a  snake  (cobra)  cult. 
When  they  reached  the  Gandak  they  encountered  the 
Dasyu,  who  were  described  as  dark-coloured, 
low-statured,  treacherous  and  foul  in  manners.  The 
aboriginal  elements  were  prepotent,  and  the  so-called 
Aryan    conquest    was    more    social  than    ethnical,    the 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  57 

spread  of  the  culture  was  peaceful  and  intellectual 
rather  than  imposed  by  conquest  (Crooke).  The  entry 
into  the  Punjab  was  a  very  gradual  one,  probably 
extending  over  centuries. 

The  Sakas,  the  Se  (Sek)  of  the  Chinese  annals, 
originally  were  a  horde  of  pastoral  nomads,  like  the 
modern  Turkomans,  who  came  from  the  region  between 
the  Jaxartes  (Syr  Darya)  and  west  of  the  country  of  the 
Wusuns  (p.  49).  About  150  B.C.  they  were  expelled  from 
their  pasture  grounds  by  another  horde,  the  Yueh-chi, 
and  compelled  to  migrate  southwards.  They  ultimattly 
reached  India  about  150-140  B.C.,  probably  through  the 
Pamirs,  Gilgit  and  the  Suwat  Valley,  until  they  entered 
the  plains  of  Peshawar.  Another  branch  advanced 
further  to  the  south,  perhaps  crossed  Sind,  and  occupied 
Kathiawar.  Pahlavas  from  Persia  and  Yavanas 
('Asiatic  Greeks')  also  occupied  parts  of  Western  India 
about  this  time.  A  Turki-tribe,  the  Yiieh-chi,  who 
occupied  lands  in  the  province  of  Kan-suh  in  North- 
western China,  were  ousted  between  174  and  160  B.C. 
by  an  allied  horde,  the  Hiung-nu,  and  a  multitude  of  from 
half  a  million  to  a  million  persons  of  all  ages  and  both 
sexes  migrated  westward.  They  conquered  the  Wusuns 
and  drove  out  the  Sakas,  whose  land  they  occuplt  ' 
About  140  B.C.  the  Hiung-nu  and  Wusuns  drove  them 
southwards  to  Sogdiana  and  Bactria,  lands  to  the  nonh 
and  south  of  the  Upper  Oxus  (Amu  Darya).  Here  they 
became  a  settled  nation.  Kadphises  I.,  chief  of  the 
Kushan  section  of  the  horde,  established  himself  as  sole 
monarch  of  the  Yueh-chi  nation  about  45  A.D.,  and 
Kadphises  II.  extended  his  dominion  about  90-100  A.D. 


58  The  Races  of  Man 

all  over  North-western  India  as  far  as  Benares,  but  ex- 
cluding Sind.  The  collapse  of  the  Kushan  power  in  India 
occurred  about  226  A.D.  About  455  A.D.  an  irruption 
of  savage  Hunas  poured  from  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia 
through  the  north-west  passes  and  carried  devastation 
over  the  plains  and  crowded  cities  of  India.  They  were 
repulsed  by  Skandagupta,  King  of  the  Gupta  Empire,  but 
the  latter  succumbed  in  470  to  fresh  invasions  of  these 
White  Huns  (Ephthalites,  Huna,  Hoa,  or  Ye-the),  a 
brachycephalic  polyandric  Tatar  people.  They  were 
expelled  about  528  A.D.  by  a  confederation  of  Hindu 
princes.  The  arrival  of  the  Turks  in  the  Oxus  valley 
in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  changed  the 
situation  completely,  and  about  565  A.D.  the  White 
Huns  were  destroyed  and  the  Turks  annexed  the 
whole  of  the  remaining  Hun  empire.  The  Gurjaras 
probably  entered  India  about  the  same  time  as 
the  White  Huns  and  settled  in  large  numbers  in 
Rajputana.  It  is  not  known  whence  they  came.  They 
formed  kingdoms  in  early  mediaeval  times,  and  many 
kings  of  the  powerful  Kanauj  dynasty  were  Gurjaras. 
The  surviving  Gujars  are  primarily  a   pastoral   people, 

jaged    in    agriculture.      (Vincent   A. 

ey  there  exists  in  the  Kashmir  Valley, 
Punjab  and  Rajputana,  a  definite  physical  type  repre- 
sented by  the  Rajputs  and  Jats.  This  type  possesses  a 
dolichocephalic  head,  straight,  finely-cut,  leptorrhine 
nose,  long,  narrow  face,  well-developed  forehead,  regular 
features,  tall  stature,  and  light  transparent  brown  skin. 
The  Rajputs  look  upon  governing  and  bearing  arms   as 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  59 

the  proper  business  of  life.  No  regard  is  paid  to  educa- 
tion. They  are  never  artisans,  and  rarely  trade.  Caste 
is  not  rigid,  all  Rajputs  being  theoretically,  but  not  actu- 
ally, of  one  blood.  Widows  may  not  remarry.  They  are 
orthodox  Hindus  with  ancestor  worship.  The  Jat  is  a 
sturdy,  independent,  patient  husbandman,  peaceable  if 
unmolested.  Those  of  the  western  plains  are  pastors.  The 
Jats  allow  widows  to  remarry.  They  are  Muhammadans 
in  religion. 

Even  the  Rajputs  cannot  claim  to  be  pure  Aryans,  and 
the  most  ancient  clans  prove  to  be  very  mixed  in  origin. 
In  the  Punjab  we  have  reigning  Brahman  families  which 
became  Rajput;  in  Oudh,  Brahmans,  Bhars  and  Ahirs 
have  all  contributed  to  the  Rajput  clans,  but  the  majority 
appear  to  have  been  Aryanised  Sudras.  Of  the  clans  of 
Rajputana  some — like  the  Chauhans,  Solankis  and 
Gehlots — have  a  foreign  origin  ;  others  are  allied  to  the 
Indo-Scythic  Jats  and  Gujars  ;  others  represent  ancient 
ruling  families  with  more  or  less  probability.  These 
clans,  however,  acquired  a  certain  homogeneity  by  con- 
stant intermarriage  and  the  adoption  of  common  customs 
(J.  Kennedy).  The  well-known  clan  of  Parihar  Rajputs 
is  a  branch  of  the  Gurjara  or  Gujar  stock.  Most  of  the 
great  Rajput  clans  are  descended  from  foreign  immigrants 
of  the  fifth  or  sixth  century  A.D.,  or  from  indigenous 
races  such  as  the  Gonds,  Bhars,  Kols,  and  the  like. 
r.  A.  Smith.) 

As  soon  as  the  Aryas  established  themselves  in  the 
lains  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  they  mingled  with  the 
borigines,  and  by  stress  of  the  contact  caste  was 
volved,  the  Code  of   Manu  written,  and  the  elaborate 


60  The  Races  op  Man 

orthodox  ritual  built  up.  Thus  was  produced  the  mixed 
type  of  Hindustan  and  Bihar,  with  all  grades  of  mixture, 
the  Aryo-Dravidians  of  Risley.  There  are  three 
divisions :  The  Babhans  of  Bihar,  a  fine  manly  people 
with  Aryan  type  of  features,  medium  height;  they 
are  mesaticephalic  and  mesorrhine.  The  territorial 
exogamous  groups  render  it  probable  that  they  are 
a  branch  of  the  Rajputs.  They  are  settled  agri- 
culturists, but  will  not  drive  the  plough  with  their 
own  hands. 

The  Chamars  of  the  United  Provinces  and  Bengal  have 
been  largely  recruited  from  non-Aryan  elements.  They 
are  of  low  medium  stature,  dolichocephalic  and  platyr- 
rhine.  They  are  leather  workers  and  day-labourers. 
Polygyny  is  discouraged.  They  are  a  proud  and 
punctilious  people,  but  are  looked  upon  as  impure 
because  they  eat  beef,  pork,  and  fowls,  and  keep  pigs. 
The  Brahmans  of  the  United  Provinces  are  a  dolicho- 
cephalic, mesorrhine  people  of  medium  height. 

A  zone  of  relatively  broad-headed  people  extends  from 
the  great  grazing  country  of  the  Western  Punjab  through 
the  Deccan  to  the  Coorgs.  Risley  supports  the  view 
that  this  may  be  the  track  of  the  Scythians,  who  found 
their  progress  east  blocked  by  the  Indo-Aryans  and  so 
turned  south,  mingled  with  the  Dravidian  population, 
and  became  the  ancestors  of  the  Marathas  and  Canarese. 
But  evidence  seems  to  be  lacking  that  the  "  Scythians" 
penetrated  far  into  the  Deccan,  and  apart  from  brachy- 
cephaly  there  is  little  to  associate  these  peoples  with 
Scythians.  It  seems  quite  possible  that  these  brachy- 
cephals  are  the   result  of  an   unrecorded   migration  of 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  61 

some  members  of  the  Alpine  race  from  the  highlands  of 
South-west  Asia  in  pre-historic  times. 

The  main  element  in  the  modern  Mahrattas  (Marathas) 
is  that  known  as  Kunbi  or  Kurmi,  a  widespread  caste  of 
cultivators,  undoubtedly  of  "  Di  avidian "  (aboriginal) 
origin,  numerous  throughout  the  northern  plains  as  far 
east  as  Bengal.  The  Mahrattas  form  the  higher  status 
group  of  this  people,  to  which  they  have  attained  by  the 
same  methods  as  those  of  the  Rajputs  in  the  Punjab. 
Even  now  the  difference  between  the  Mahratta  and 
Kunbi  is  mainly  social.  Hinduism  prevails,  though 
totems  still  survive. 

Three  other  members  of  this  group  are:  The  Prabhus, 
a  mesaticephalic,  mesorrhine  people  of  rather  low 
stature,  who  reside  chiefly  in  the  districts  around 
Bombay  City,  but  who  originally  came  from  Oudh ; 
probably  the  Gupta  dynasty  belonged  to  this  stock.  The 
original  occupation  was  that  of  the  soldier,  now  they 
wield  the  pen.  Polygyny  is  allowed  but  is  not  the  rule ; 
neither  divorce  nor  remarriage  of  widows  are  allowed. 
They  follow  the  Vedic  form  of  religion,  but  arms  and 
writing  materials  are  worshipped.  The  Canarese  are 
mesaticephalic  with  regular  features.  They  are  frank, 
independent,  intelligent,  and  fond  of  show.  Formerly 
they  made  wide-ranging  forays,  adopting  guerilla 
methods;  they  were  unscrupulous  with  friend  or  foe,  and 
too  individualistic  to  build  up  a  kingdom.  The  former 
fighting  middle  class  now  cultivate  the  soil.  Every 
family  has  its  guardian  or  symbol,  which  was  formerly  a 
totem.  The  Coorgs,  who  inhabit  the  extreme  south  of 
the  Bombay  Presidency,  and  speak  a  Dravidian  language, 


62  The  Races  of  Man 

are  a  mesaticephalic,  mesorrhine  people,  of  medium 
height,  with  light  brown  skin  and  straight  hair.  They 
are  agriculturists  with  sporting  and  fighting  proclivities, 
and  are  the  finest  people  in  South  India, 

The  pure  Veddas  of  Ceylon  are  probably  the  least 
modified  survivals  of  the  ancient  Pre-Dravidian  race; 
they  are  a  grave  but  happy  people,  with  a  love  of  liberty, 
upright,  hospitable,  and  quiet.  Lying  and  theft  are 
unknown  among  them ;  they  have  a  great  fear  of 
strangers.  They  live  in  rock  shelters  or  simple  huts, 
and  subsist  by  hunting  and  collecting  honey,  etc.  After 
a  death  they  perform  certain  dances  and  rites  through  a 
shaman  to  the  recently  departed  spirit,  and  they  also 
propitiate  certain  powerful  spirits,  male  and  female,  by 
sacrifices  and  ceremonial  dances.  They  are  strictly 
monogamous,  and  live  in  detached  communities  which 
have  no  regular  chief.  Some  of  the  Pre-Dravidian 
tribes  of  South  India  are  jungle  hunters  in  a  state  of 
savagery,  with  very  little,  if  any,  agriculture;  others  are 
agriculturists,  while  some  are  artisans.  Some  are  mono- 
gamous, others  polygynous.  Animism  is  very  widely 
spread,  but  simple  forms  of  Hinduism  have  been 
adopted  by  the  more  cultured  tribes. 

Various  stages  of  culture  are  met  with  among  the 
true  Dravidian  peoples.  Some,  like  the  totemic  Bhils  of 
the  north-west  Deccan,  live  mainly  on  natural  produce 
but  even  these  are  taking  to  agriculture.  The  Bhils,  the 
outcasts  of  centuries,  are  contemned  by  the  Hindus  and 
scorned  by  the  Rajputs;  but  when  a  Rajput  chief  is 
installed,  it  is  the  despised  Bhil  who  puts  the  sign  of 
kingship  on  his  forehead. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  63 

Southern  India  is  mainly  inhabited  by  numerous 
Dravidian  peoples  who  are  grouped  linguistically  into 
Telegu,  Tamil,  and  Malayalim.  The  Telegu  (Telinga, 
Kalinga,  or  Klings)  extend  over  the  Coromandel  coast, 
the  northern  half  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  and 
Hyderabad.  Thurston  has  recently  shown  that  the 
Telegu  of  the  north-east  have  an  average  cephalic 
index  of  about  seventy  -  eight,  showing  that 
so-called  "Scythian"  mixture  has  taken  place.  The 
Telegus  have  superior  physique  to  the  Tamils  and  are 
lighter  in  colour.  Formerly  they  possessed  a  martial 
spirit,  founded  famous  kingdoms,  and  sent  colonists  to 
the  East;  now  the  Madrasi  is  a  man  of  peace,  an  agri- 
culturist and  shopkeeper.  The  Tamils  occupy  most  of 
the  southern  half  of  Madras  Presidency  and  the  north  of 
Ceylon.  The  Nayars  form  the  bulk  of  the  Sudra  popula- 
tion of  Malabar.  They  are  described  as  frank,  affection- 
ate, hospitable,  industrious,  with  reverence  for  authority. 
They  are  not  strict  vegetarians.  Malabar  is  the  most 
literate  country  in  all  India,  and  almost  every  Nayar  girl 
goes  to  school.  These  people  were  the  swordsmen,  the 
military  caste  of  the  west  coast  of  India.  There  are 
numerous  divisions  which  may  or  may  not  be  endogamous, 
but  the  mother-right  kinship  groups  (Taravad)  are  strictly 
exogamous.  Very  young  girls  are  married  symbolically 
with  a  ceremony  at  which  the  Tali  is  tied ;  the  true 
marriage  to  another  man  is  a  simple  affair.  In  South 
Malabar  the  woman  never  lives  in  her  husband's  house, 
but  she  does  so  in  North  Malabar;  the  relations  between 
the  sexes  are  not  influenced  by  considerations  of  property. 
A  good  deal  of  license  is  allowed  by  some  groups,  others 


64  The  Races  of   Man 

are  strictly  monogamous;  polyandry  certainly  occurred 
formerly,  as  it  still  does  amongst  other  Malabar  castes. 
In  Malabar  the  most  abstract  religion  of  South  India  is 
mingled  with  the  most  primitive  ;  serpent  worship  occurs. 
The  Todas  of  the  Nilgiri  Hills  are  somewhat  aberrant. 
They  are  strong,  agile,  intelligent,  dignified,  and  cheerful. 
They  are  fully  clothed,  and  are  without  weapons.  They 
live  a  simple  pastoral  life  and  are  concerned  solely  with 
the  care  of  the  dairy.  They  form  a  typical  polyandrous 
community;  when  a  woman  marries  it  is  understood  that 
she  becomes  the  wife  of  her  husband's  brothers  (own  or 
clan).  Recently  there  is  a  tendency  for  polyandry  to  be 
associated  with  polygyny.  Descent  is  patrilineal  with 
few  traces  of  mother-right.  "  It  is  doubtful  whether 
crime  can  be  said  to  exist  among  the  Todas,  they  have  a 
code  of  offences  against  the  dairy,  but  these  must  be  con- 
sidered as  sins  rather  than  as  crimes  "  (Rivers).  Gods 
once  believed  to  be  active  and  living  among  men  have 
become  shadowy  beings  ;  there  is  no  proof  that  the  buffalo 
was  ever  regarded  as  a  god  ;  ritual  has  killed  the  spirit 
of  religion  and  in  its  turn  is  becoming  perfunctory. 
Corpses  are  burnt. 

The  Munda-speaking  peoples  are  a  very  ancient  element 
in  the  population  and  appear  to  have  been  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  in  Western 
Bengal ;  after  many  wanderings  they  settled  mainly  in 
Chota  Nagpur.  Everywhere  they  have  been  more  or  less 
modified  by  the  Dravidians,  and  while  scattered  relics  of 
the  languages  are  preserved,  the  original  physical  type 
appears  to  have  been  assimilated  to  that  of  the  Dravid- 
ians, but  perhaps  it  was  originally  a  closely-allied  type. 


Distribution  of  Races  and   Peoples  65 

They  may  belong  to  the  primitive  Indonesian  race.  The 
more  important  tribes  are  the  Mundas,  Bhumij,  Ho, 
jfuangs,  etc.  Most  are  divided  into  exogamous  septs, 
probably  originally  totemic.  There  is  a  vague  supreme 
sun-god;  human  sacrifices  were  once  offered.  Memorial 
stones  are  erected. 

In  Western  Bengal  the  "  Dravidian  "  element  is  more 
prominent  in  the  population,  but  this  is  modified  towards 
the  east,  and  in  Eastern  Bengal  Mongoloid  characters 
predominate.  The  latter  are  the  "  Mongolo-Dravidians  " 
of  Risley.     The  majority  of  the  people  are  agricultural. 

Assam. 

From  very  early  times  inhabitants  of  India  proper 
migrated  into  the  rich  alluvial  plains  of  Assam,  many  of 
whom  mixed  with  the  aboriginal  population  to  form  the 
"  semi-Hinduized  aborigines."  Muhammadans  are  also 
especially  numerous  in  the  plains  south  of  the  Khasi 
hills.  The  Hinduized  Meithis  or  ManipuH  are  a  mixed 
people  sprung  from  the  Kukis  in  the  south,  the  Nagas  in 
the  north,  and  Shan  and  Burmese  in  the  east. 

The  first  Indo-Chinese  invasion  appears  to  have  been 
by  Tibeto-Burmans.  At  the  end  of  the  8th  Century  a.d. 
the  Shews  began  to  conquer  Assam.  King  Chukupha 
(A.D.  1228)  assumed  for  himself  and  people  the  name  of 
Aham,  the  peerless  ;  this  is  now  softened  to  Assam.  His 
successor  adopted  the  Hindu  religion,  and  the  Aham 
Shans  grew  to  be  regarded  as  a  new  division  of  the 
Hindu  Assamese  population.  This  dynasty  was  over- 
thrown in  1810  by  the  Burmese;  when  various  branches 


66  The  Races  of  Man 

of  the  Tai  or  Shan  stock,  such  as  the  Khamtis,  Phakis 
and  Kamjangs,  came  into  the  country.  The  A  hams  or 
Hindu  Assamese  are  a  strong,  healthy  race,  now  mostly 
poor  cultivators;  they  are  generally  tall,  and  lighter  than 
the  Bengalis,  with  a  flat  face,  high  cheek  bones,  black 
and  coarse  hair,  and  scanty  beard ;  they  are  divided  into 
castes ;  they  bury  their  dead. 

The  hills  were  occupied  by  the  British  to  protect  the 
plains  from  the  raids  of  the  hill-tribes,  who,  from  an 
ethnological  point  of  view,  form  the  most  interesting 
section  of  the  people. 

The  Lusheis  (sometimes  called  Kukis)  of  the  Lushai 
Hills  are  a  short  Mongoloid  people;  who  live  in  villages 
under  an  independent  chief,  but  the  people  are  very 
democratic.  Rice  is  seldom  cultivated  on  the  same  land 
two  years  running.  The  villages,  which  are  on  the  tops 
of  hills,  are  frequently  removed.  The  houses  are  built 
on  piles.  There  is  a  large  house  for  young  men  and 
guests.  They  are  only  head-hunters  incidentally.  They 
believe  in  a  supreme  being,  but  the  numerous  spirits  are 
more  important. 

The  Khasis  of  the  Khasi  Hills  are  distinctly  Mongoloid. 
An  immense  number  of  exogamous  septs,  some  totemic. 
Mother-right  obtains,  and  males  can  own  only  self- 
acquired  property.  They  worship  ancestors,  natural 
forces,  and  deities.  Monoliths  are  often  erected  as 
cenotaphs,  and  there  are  numerous  other  stone 
erections.  Their  language  belongs  to  the  Mon-Khmer 
family,  and  is  closely  allied  to  the  Palaung-Wa  dialects 
of  Burma. 

The  Nagas  "  more  closely  resemble  the  natives  of  the 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Pboples  67 

Malayan  Archipelago  than  any  of  the  other  races 
inhabiting  the  hills  or  plains  of  India  and  Assam  " 
(Furness).  The  villages  are  on  hill  tops,  with  no  marked 
tribal  unity.  Each  village  is  divided  into  endogamous 
groups  (khel)  which  contain  several  exogamous  septs, 
but  the  latter  may  be  scattered  through  several  villages. 
Each  khel  (except  among  the  Sema  and  Angami  tribes) 
has  its  bachelors'  house.  Descent  is  reckoned  through 
the  father.  They  are  monogamous.  All  are  head- 
hunters.  Mother-right  obtains  among  the  Garos  and 
Kukis. 

The  Chiiigpos  or  Singplws  arrived  in  Assam  from  the 
east  of  the  upper  waters  of  the  Irawadi  about  1793  A.D. 
They  are  the  same  people  as  the  Chingpaw,  Kachin  or 
Kakhyen  of  North  Burma,  with  tawny  yellow  to  brown 
complexions,  and  marked  Mongolian  features.  For 
several  generations  they  were  the  terror  of  the  country, 
carrying  off  people  into  slavery.  Polygyny  prevails. 
They  have  a  confused  notion  of  a  supreme  being,  but 
propitiate  only  three  malignant  spirits  or  nhats. 

The  Mishmis  of  the  extreme  north-east  are  constantly 
on  the  move  in  their  trading  expeditions.  They  attend 
to  cultivation  less  than  their  neighbours,  and  count  riches 
by  the  number  of  their  half-wild  cattle  and  their  wives; 
the  cattle  are  not  used  for  agricultural  purposes  or  for 
milk.  Some  have  "  almost  Aryan  features,"  and  they 
are  probably  allied  to  the  Mantse,  a  pre-Chinese  people 
of  South  China,  who  originally  came  from  the  west. 


68  The  Races  of  Man 

Burma. 

The  original  population  may  be  represented  by  the 
Selung,  the  nomadic  fishers  of  the  Mergui  Archipelago, 
who  have  no  fixed  villages  and  do  not  cultivate  the  soil. 
The  men  are  below  average  size,  vary  from  light  to 
dark  brown,  and  have  long,  lank  black  hair.  They  are 
regarded  as  being  of  Indonesian  race,  but  there  seems  to 
be  a  Proto -Malay  mixture. 

All  the  other  peoples  belong  to  the  Indo-Chinese  popu- 
lation and  are  grouped  into  Mon-Khmer,  Tibcto-Burman 
and  Siamese-Chinese  sub-families.  Probably  2,000-3,000 
years  ago  the  coast  was  occupied  by  Indonesians  and 
the  interior  by  tribes  speaking  Mon-Khmer  languages. 
From  the  North  came  the  ancestors  of  the 
Tibeto-Burman  and  Tai  peoples,  who  within  the 
last  fifteen  centuries  have  flooded  indo-China  with 
successive  swarms  of  conquerors  and  have  received 
through  Mon  and  Khmer  channels  a  varnish  of  Indian 
civilisation. 

Some  believe  that  the  Mon  were  the  earlier  settled 
race  to  whom  the  Talaing  (Telinga  or  Klings)  brought  a 
civilisation  from  India  about  1,000  B.C.  The  fused  race  is 
now  known  by  either  name.  In  dress  and  customs  they 
resemble  the  Burmans.  To  this  group  belong  the  peace- 
ful, avaricious,  sanctimonious Palanng  of  the  Shan  States; 
and  the  Wa  tribes  of  the  north-east  frontier,  who  are 
brave,  energetic,  independent,  un mercenary.  The  dark 
wild  Wa  are  prosperous  headhunters,  who  collect  skulls 
as  a  protection  against  evil  spirits,  and  are  not  habitual 
cannibals.     The  poor  tame  Wa  are  lighter  in  colour. 


Distribution  of  Races  and   Peoples  69 

The  earliest  seat  of  the  Tibeto-Burman  speaking  peoples 
appears  to  have  been  the  head-waters  of  the  Yang-tse- 
Kiang.  There  is  no  proof  that  the  Burmans  reached  the 
Irawadi  Valley  before  600  B.C.  In  the  ninth  century 
A.D.  Burmans  occupied  the  greater  part  of  Upper  Burma 
and  the  Mon  were  on  the  lower  Irawadi,  Sitang,  and 
Salwin  (the  Khmer  were  then  at  the  height  of  their 
power,  with  magnificent  towns  and  temples  in  Cambodia). 
In  the  fourteenth  century  A.D.  the  Tai  moved  from  Tali, 
overran  North  Burma  and  forced  the  Burmans  down  on 
the  Mons.  After  much  fighting,  with  varying  successes, 
the  Burmans  merged  with  the  Mons  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  Burmans  have  marked  Mongoloid  char- 
acters. They  are  the  most  engaging  race  in  the  east,  the 
men  are  unbusinesslike  and  courteous,  with  a  great  sense 
of  humour,  great  pride  of  race  and  self-reliance,  brave,  but 
not  fool-hardy.  The  Burmese  nature  is  so  essentially 
democratic  that  there  is  no  indigenous  caste  system. 
The  Burman  is  essentially  an  agriculturalist,  but  is  lazy; 
they  dress  in  brilliant  colours.  They  live  chiefly  on  rice 
with  a  few  condiments  and  drink  water.  Their  houses  are 
of  wood  or  bamboo  and  raised  on  posts ;  but  have  masonry 
pagodas  and  temples.  There  are  very  numerous 
monasteries.  The  Burmans  most  nearly  of  all  Buddhists 
follow  the  teaching  of  Buddha.  No  Burman  is  considered 
a  human  being  till  he  has  put  on  the  yellow  robe  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  period;  but  their  Buddhism  is  super- 
ficial, it  being  superimposed  on  an  earlier  and  still  strong 
belief  in  spirits  (nats) ;  and  animism  prevails  every  where. 

The  Chingpaw,  Chlngpo,  Kakhyen,  or  Kachin  of  the 
extreme  north  are  constantly  moving  southwards.     They 


70  The  Races  of  Man 

are  pugnacious,  vindictive,  stiff-necked  people,  with  a 
constant  tendency  to  disintegration.  The  Chingpaw 
exhibit  two  types :  one  markedly  Mongoloid,  the  other 
"  much  finer,  with  regular  Caucasic  features,  long  oval 
face,  pointed  chin,  aquiline  nose"  (Keane). 

The  Siamese-Chinese  linguistic  group  comprises  Tai 
or  Shan,  and  the  Karens.  The  Tai  first  appear  in  history 
in  Yun-nan,  south-west  China,  and  early,  small  swarms  of 
them  entered  Burma  2,000  years  ago  ;  the  foundation  of 
the  Tai  principalities  in  the  Salwin  Valley  took  place 
about  the  third  century  A.D. ;  a  great  wave  of  immigra- 
tion occurred  in  the  sixth  century;  they  peopled  the  Shan 
States.  When  the  '  Mongol '  hordes  under  Kublai  Khan 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  conquered 
%Indo-China,  the  Tai  went  westward  and  supplied  kings  to 
North  Burma  for  two  centuries.  The  Shans  of  Eastern 
Burma  resemble  the  Burmans,  but  are  fairer,  mild  and 
good-humoured;  technically  are  fervent  Buddhists. 
Their  tendency  has  always  been  to  fritter  away  their 
strength,  as  are  always  swarming.  The  Karen  clans  were 
driven  south  from  China  by  the  Tai,  and  later  were 
driven  back  into  the  hills  of  the  south-east  by  the  Mons 
and  the  Burmans.  There  are  two  types,  the  White  and 
Red  Karens;  sturdy  race,  straight  black  and  brownish 
hair,  black  and  hazel  eyes ;  "  here  also  a  Caucasic  strain 
may  be  suspected"  (Keane). 

The  Negritoes  of  Asia. 

Flower  regards  them  "  as  representing  an  infantile, 
undeveloped,  or  primitive  form  of  the  type  from  which 
the  African  Negroes  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Melane- 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  71 

sians  on  the  other,  with  all  their  various  modifications, 
may  have  sprung  up." 

Andamanese, 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Andaman  Islands  were  said  to 
be  formerly  virtuous,  modest,  honest  and  frank.  Con- 
jugal fidelity  was  the  absolute  rule,  and  divorce  was 
formerly  unknown.  The  women  are  on  a  footing  of 
equality  with  the  men  and  do  their  full  share  of  work. 
The  Andamanese  have  a  sense  of  humour.  They  express 
any  emotion  whether  of  joy  or  sorrow  by  loud  weeping. 

They  live  mainly  on  fish,  wild  yams,  turtle,  pig  and 
honey.  Their  food  is  mostly  eaten  cooked.  The  men 
are  hunters  and  collectors  and  do  not  till  the  soil,  nor  do 
they  keep  domestic  animals.  The  men  go  nude,  the 
women  wear  a  small  leaf  apron  ;  both  sexes  wear  a 
number  of  ornaments. 

They  live  in  small  encampments  round  an  oval  dancing 
ground,  their  huts  being  constructed  of  branches  and 
leaves.  Bows  and  arrows  are  used  for  hunting  and  fish- 
ing ;  all  their  original  implements  were  made  of  wood, 
bone  or  shell.  They  make  canoes  some  of  which  have 
outriggers,  but  they  never  venture  far  from  the  shore. 
Pottery  is  made  by  the  men. 

There  is  no  organised  polity  in  the  Andamanese  com- 
munity. There  is  generally  one  man  who  excels  the  rest 
in  hunting,  warfare,  wisdom,  and  kindliness,  and  he  is 
deferred  to  and  becomes  in  a  sense  chief.  A  regular  feature 
of  Andamanese  social  life  is  the  meeting  at  intervals 
between  two  or  more  communitcs.  Marriage  is  strictly 
monogamous. 

F 


72  The  Races  of  Man 

The  Andamanese  have  a  system  of  taboos  on  certain 
foods,  notably  turtle  and  pig,  at  those  periods  of  life 
which  they  regard  as  critical.  Disease  and  death  are 
attributed  to  the  spirits  of  jungle  and  sea,  and  after  a 
death  has  taken  place  the  camping  place  will  be  aban- 
doned for  a  fresh  site.  The  Andamanese  religious  system 
is  exceedingly  primitive.  There  are  certain  spirits  of  sea 
and  jungle  whom  they  must  avoid  vexing  ;  chief  of  these 
is  Biliku  who  controls  the  weather.  Biliku  is  generally 
regarded  as  feminine  and  the  north-east  wind  belongs  to 
her,  while  her  male  counterpart  Tarai  owns  the  south-west 
wind.  The  spirits  of  the  dead  are  believed  by  some  tribes 
to  haunt  the  jungle  or  the  sea,  and  by  others  to  repair  to 
a  place  below  the  earth  where  there  is  a  jungle. 

Semang  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

The  Semang  are  a  nomadic  people  living  by  collecting 
and  hunting  ;  the  wilder  ones  will  often  not  remain  longer 
than  three  days  in  one  place.  Very  few  have  taken  to 
agriculture.  Their  clothing  consists  of  a  girdle  of  leaves 
or  a  loin-cloth  of  tree  bark.  Their  distinctive  weapon  is 
the  bow  with  poisoned  arrows.  They  are  strictly  mono- 
gamous  and  both  sexes  are  faithful. 

There  is  a  chief  of  each  tribe  who  acts  as  chief 
medicine-man  and  exercises  authority  like  the  head  of  a 
family.  All  men  are  on  an  equal  footing.  Crime  is  rare ; 
theft  is  punished  by  a  fine.  All  property  is  held  in 
common.  Barter  in  jungle  produce  is  carried  on  with 
the  Malays. 

A  child  is  named  after  the  tree  near  which  it  is  born, 
the  fruit  of  that  tree  being  taboo  to  it.     They  have  no 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  73 

great  fear  of  the  ghosts  of  the  deceased.  They  have 
vague  kind  of  deities,  but  there  is  no  trace  of  an  actual 
cult.  They  recognise  the  thunder  god,  Kari,  who  is  the 
creator  of  most  things  and  the  judge  of  men. 

The  Aket  (Orang  Raket),  eastern  of  Sumatra,  are 
closely  allied  to  the  Semang  (Moszkowski). 

Aetas  of  the  Philippines. 

The  Aetas  or  Aitas  are  an  indolent,  timid  and  peaceful 
people,  but  become  fierce  and  violent  under  provocation. 
They  are  somewhat  inclined  to  be  mischievous  and 
thievish.  They  are  fond  of  music  and  dances.  They 
live  mainly  on  game,  fish,  wild  honey  and  forest  products. 

One  tribe  file  the  front  teeth  to  a  point.  Both  men 
and  women  are  scarified  in  certain  parts  of  the  body, 
but  not  tattooed.  Various  ornaments  are  worn.  The 
women  have  bamboo  combs  thrust  into  their  hair ;  these 
are  decorated  with  scratch-work  patterns,  and  often 
plumes  of  hair  and  coloured  feathers  are  attached  to 
these.  The  men  often  wear  circlets  of  boars'  bristles 
round  their  calves.  The  normal  dress  of  the  men  and 
boys  is  a  perineal  band  of  bark  or  cloth,  that  of  the 
women  a  short  skirt  of  the  same. 

They  are  nomadic  in  habits,  and  live  in  rapidly  con- 
structed huts  with  roofs  of  leaves  or  grass,  beneath  which 
will  perhaps  be  sleeping  platforms  of  poles.  Their 
weapons  are  bows  with  poisoned  arrows,  and  lances. 
They  wander  about  in  bands  of  fifty  or  more.  Monogamy 
is  the  general  rule,  but  polygyny  may  be  indulged  in  if  an 
individual  has  sufficient  wealth.  The  dead  are  buried  in 
the  ground  with  more  or  less  elaborate  ceremonies. 


74  The  Races  op  Man 


Malay  Peninsula. 


In  the  north  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  peoples  of  Indo- 
Chinese  extraction  prevail ;  in  the  south  three  distinct 
races    are      represented :       Negrito      (Semang),      Pre 
Dravidian  (Sakai),  and  Indo-Chinese  (Malay). 

The  Semang  have  already  been  described.  The  Sakai 
or  Senoi  are  largely  nomadic,  their  agriculture  being  of 
the  most  primitive  description,  for  which  they  usually 
employ  a  digging-stick;  they  frequently  live  in  tree-huts 
or  other  temporary  shelters.  Men  still  wear  the  tree- 
bark  loincloth  and  the  women  a  tree-bark  wrapper,  but 
now  both  frequently  wear  Malay  clothing.  Their  distinc- 
tive weapon  is  the  blow  pipe,  which  they  have  brought  to 
a  great  perfection.  They  are  strict  in  the  observance  of 
the  marriage  tie.  They  have  the  greatest  possible  fear 
of  death,  or  rather  of  the  ghost  of  the  deceased,  and  seem 
to  have  a  kind  of  deity. 

A  third  main  element  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula  is  that  comprised  by  the  '  Savage 
Malays '  or  Jakun,  many  of  which  have  mixed  with 
Semangs  and  Sakais.  They  may  be  grouped  under 
Orang  Bukit  (Land  people)  and  Orang  Laid  (Sea  people). 
Their  skin  is  darker  and  their  stature  slightly  shorter 
than  that  of  the  true  Malays.  They  are  largely  nomadic, 
though  the  Land  Jakun  usually  practise  some  form  of 
agriculture;  their  clothing  is  like  that  of  the  Malays  but 
scantier;  they  file  their  teeth  but  do  not  circumcise.  The 
universal  weapon  of  the  jungle  tribes  is  the  blow-pipe 
with  poisoned  darts.  The  small  huts  are  built  on  piles. 
They  trade  jungle  produce  with  the  Malays  who  oppress 


Distribution  of  Races  and   Peoples  75 

them.  The  Orang  Laut  are  nomadic  fishers,  who  occa- 
sionally live  in  temporary  huts  built  on  the  ground,  when 
they  have  occasion  to  build  boats,  mend  nets,  or  collect 
dammar,  etc.  The  Jakun,  unlike  the  Malay,  is  hospitable 
and  generous;  childlike,  and  proud,  he  hates  and  fears 
the  Malay,  though  he  has  to  trade  with  him.  The 
Malays  despise  and  fear  the  Jakun,  and  attribute  to  them 
supernatural  power  and  an  unlimited  knowledge  of  the 
secrets  of  nature.  The  Jakun  acknowledge  a  supreme 
being,  but  are  pagans,  and  devoutly  believe  in  hantu 
(spirits  and  demons). 

The  true  Malay,  who  call  themselves  Orang  Malayu, 
speak  the  standard,  but  quite  modern,  iMalay  language, 
and  are  all  Muhammadans.  Originally  they  were  an 
obscure  tribe  who  rose  to  power  in  the  Menangkabau 
district,  Sumatra,  not  before  the  twelfth  century,  and 
whose  migrations  date  only  from  about  the  year  1 160  A.D. 
(Keane).  At  this  time  Singapore  was  founded  by  them, 
when  they  professed  some  form  of  Hinduism;  they  were 
converted  to  Islam  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  Malay  is  naturally  of  an  easy-going, 
indolent  character,  deliberate,  reserved  and  taciturn. 
The  upper  classes  are  exceedingly  courteous,  yet  with 
this  outward  refinement  they  have  the  most  pitiless 
cruelty  and  contempt  of  human  life.  They  are  false, 
wily,  and  very  frugal.  '  The  patriotism,  self-respect, 
reverence  for  immemorial  law,  loyalty  to  their  rulers, 
traditions  of  courtesy  and  love  of  study  for  its  own  sake 
— things  that  contain  the  germ  of  national  progress ' 
are  admirable  (Wilkinson).  Nominally  they  are  Moslems 
of  the    Sunnite   sect,    but  lack  the   fanaticism   of   that 


76  The  Races  of   Man 

religion;  owing  to  their  conservatism  they  are  unwilling 
to  give  up  any  cult  that  they  can  possibly  retain  under  a 
Muhammadan  disguise,  their  demonology  being  made  up 
of  the  strata  of  several  successive  religions. 


Borneo. 

The  natives  of  Borneo  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  example 
of  the  distribution  of  races  in  the  East  Indian  Archipel- 
ago, although,  naturally,  the  conditions  vary  in  different 
islands. 

So  far  as  our  present  knowledge  goes,  apart  from 
obvious  foreigners,  there  are  only  two  races  in  Borneo,  the 
dolichocephalic  Indonesian  and  the  brachycephalic  Proto- 
Malay,  but  these  are  so  intermixed  that  no  tribe  or  people 
can  be  considered  as  a  pure  representative  of  either. 
The  skin  colour  of  the  Borneans  may  be  described  as 
buff,  in  some  quite  light,  in  others  light  brown.  The  hair 
is  usually  wavy,  and  black  with  a  reddish  tinge.  The 
stature  varies  from  1.42m.  (4ft.  8in.)  to  1.73m.  (5ft.  8in.) 
the  average  being  about  1.555m.  (5ft.  l^in.).  Thecephalic 
index  falls  into  two  groups,  70-79  and  80-89. 

Scattered  all  over  the  interior,  in  the  dense  jungle,  are 
the  nomadic  hunters,  the  Punans,  Bakatans,  Ukits,  etc. 
The  few  wants  of  these  mild  and  unwarlike  savages  are 
supplied  by  barter  from  friendly  settled  peoples.  They 
are  low  brachycephals  and  may  represent  an  aboriginal 
population. 

There  are  numerous,  scattered,  usually  weak  tribes, 
such  as  the  Land  Dayaks,  Malanau,  Kalabit,  Dusun,  and 
Murut,   who,   taken   as    a    whole,    are    dolichocephals. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoplbs  77 

They  cultivate  the  soil,  and  are  an  amiable  people,  though 
given  to  head-hunting.  The  name  Kalamantan  has  been 
given  to  this  group  of  tribes. 

Occupying  the  more  favourable  inland  country  is  the 
Kenyah-Kayan  group,  average  cephalic  index  80.  They 
are  a  very  energetic  people  who  are  extending  their  sway. 
They  are  well  organised,  have  powerful  chiefs,  and  smelt 
iron.     They  also  are  head-hunters. 

The  Iban,  or  Sea  Dayaks  were  originally  a  small  coastal 
tribe,  but  through  their  truculence  they  have  spread 
inland ;  they  are  slightly  darker  than  the  inland  people 
and     have     average     cephalic    index    83.  Although 

essentially  an  agricultural  people,  they  are  warlike,  and 
passionately  devoted  to  head-hunting.  It  is  probable 
that  the  Iban  belongs  to  the  same  stock  as  the  true 
Malay  and  his  migration  into  Borneo  may  be  regarded  as 
the  first  wave  of  the  movement  that  culminated  in  the 
Malay  Empire. 

With  the  exception  of  the  first  group,  all  these  peoples 
are  agriculturists,  living  mainly  on  rice,  which  is  usually 
grown  on  dry  ground,  but  swamp  rice  is  grown  in  the 
lowlands.  They  hunt  all  land  animals  which  serve  as  food, 
and  are  fond  of  fish.  They  all  live  in  long  communal 
houses  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Some  weave 
cotton  cloths,  those  of  the  Iban  being  particularly  beauti- 
ful. All  are  artistic.  Their  languages  belong  to  the 
Indonesian  group  of  the  Austro-Asiatic  division  of  the 
Austric  family  of  languages. 

All  their  actions  are  regulated  by  omen  animals,  most 
of  which  are  birds,  who  are  possessed  with  the  spirit  of 
certain  invisible  beings  above  and  bear  their  names,  but 


78  The  Races  of   Man 

the  gods  themselves  are  vague  owing  to  the  importance 
of  their  messengers.  The  Iban  believe  in  individual 
spirit-helpers. 

The  true  Malays  probably  emigrated  from  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  they  never  penetrated  into  the  interior,  but 
certain  coastal  people  have  partly  absorbed  the  Malay 
culture,  spirit,  and  religion. 

The  Chinese  have  long  traded  in  Borneo,  but  they  do 
not  appear  to  have  materially  modified  the  population. 
Western  Borneo  has,  however,  been  affected  by  the 
Indo-Javanese  civilisation. 

So  far  as  is  known  there  is  no  indication  in  Borneo  of 
a  Negrito  population,  such  as  occurs  in  the  Philippines 
and  the  Malay  Peninsula,  nor  of  a  Vedda-like  (Pre- 
Dravidian)  element,  such  as  P.  Sarasin  has  recently 
found  among  Toala  in  Celebes,  and  Moszkowski  among 
the  Batin  of  Sumatra. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Pboplbs  79 


AMERICA. 

It  is  a  very  difficult  matter,  with  the  facts  at  our  dis- 
posal, to  make  a  satisfactory  classification  of  the 
American  Indians,  or  Amerinds  as  they  are  sometimes 
termed.  Usually  the  various  peoples  are  grouped  on  a 
linguistic  basis,  but  this  system  breaks  down  in  California, 
where  a  large  number  of  linguistic  stocks  are  recognised 
without,  however,  there  being  a  corresponding  variation 
in  physical  type.  A  classification  based  on  physical 
characters  has  already  been  given  (pages  18,  19),  but  it 
also  is  unsatisfactory.  A  third  method  is  based  on 
geographical  areas;  this  is  convenient  from  a  cultural 
point  of  view,  and  for  lack  of  anything  better  this 
arrangement  is  provisionally  adopted. 

North  America. 

On  geographical  and  cultural  grounds  the  Indians  of 

North  America  may  be  divided  into  the  following  groups : 

I. — Eskimo. 

II. — Tribes  of  the  north  Pacific  coast. 

III. — Tribes  of  the   northern    interior   (the  Mackenzie 
River  basin  and  the  high  plateaus). 

IV. — Tribes  of  the  lower  Pacific  coast  (Columbia  River 

and  California). 
V. — Tribes  of  the  great  plains. 
VI. — Northern    and    southern    tribes  of    the    eastern 

woodlands. 
VII. — Tribes  of  the  south-west  and  of  Mexico. 


80  The  Races  of   Man 


Eskimo  or  Innuits. 

The  Eskimo  are  free,  independent,  happy,  and  ex- 
tremely gentle  in  character;  wrangling  and  fighting  are 
unknown  among  them.  Crimes,  if  committed,  go 
unpunished.     Their  women  are  treated  as  equals, 

They  are  essentially  a  littoral  people,  living  primarily 
on  sea  mammals  ;  reindeer  and  other  animals  are  hunted  ; 
vegetable  diet  is  inconsiderable.  The  whole  community 
shifts  its  locality  according  to  the  season.  In  winter  the 
houses  of  the  northern  and  eastern  tribes  are  hemi- 
spherical in  form  and  built  of  snow,  in  summer  of  skins. 
The  winter  houses  of  the  western  Eskimo  are  of  logs 
covered  over  with  earth.  Their  clothes  consist  of  skins, 
and  they  make  use  of  dog-sledges  and  skin  canoes  con- 
structed on  bone  or  wooden  frameworks.  They  are 
clever  carvers  in  bone  and  ivory  and  illustrate  daily  events 
by  engravings  on  bone,  and  the  Aleutian  Islanders  in  par- 
ticular excel  in  basketry.     They  are  extremely  musical. 

The  social  organisation  is  based  on  the  immediate 
family.  Polygyny  and  polyandry  occur  though  monogamy 
is  the  rule.  The  people  group  together  in  villages,  but 
there  is  no  sort  of  recognised  authority;  custom  is  the 
only  law.  All  property,  except  clothes,  hunting  appliances, 
and  sewing  implements  of  the  women,  is  the  common 
possession  of  one  or  at  most  three  families.  Personal 
property  generally  descends  to  the  eldest  son,  who  is 
bound  to  provide  for  the  rest  of  the  family;  among  the 
western  Eskimo  it  is  divided  among  the  children,  the 
youngest  son  receiving  the  best  weapons. 


1  111 


I  -        .>  ... 


0  »  ©    •      * 


-■■ 


I 


ESKIMO. 


Plat j  IX.] 


[Races  of  Man,  p.  8o 


1    - 

<       a  i 


Distribution  of  Races  and   Peoples  81 

In  religion  shamanism  is  the  rule,  with  a  belief  in 
guardian  and  hostile  spirits.  The  shaman  is  termed 
"  angekok,"  and  may  be  of  either  sex.  One  spirit  tends 
to  predominate  and  to  become  the  centre  of  the 
mythology.  The  western  Eskimo  attaeh  great  importance 
to  the  shades  of  deceased  friends  and  also  of  animals. 

North  Pacific  Tribes. 

All  the  North  Pacific  tribes  live  by  fishing ;  river 
salmon  and  deep-sea  fish  are  caught.  Many  are  also 
hunters,  and  the  women  collect  roots  and  berries.  They 
make  use  of  dug-outs,  and  their  tackle  consists  of  fish- 
hooks, spears,  nets  and  lines.  They  build  houses  of  cedar 
planks  with  roofs  of  bark,  and  part  of  the  year  is  passed 
in  permanent  villages.  Their  industries  are  based  largely 
on  the  yellow  and  red  cedar.  They  have  simple  basketry, 
and  stone  implements,  which  are  not  chipped,  and  are 
frequently  made  of  slate.  Their  decorative  art  is  highly 
conventionalised  and  very  characteristic. 

The  Tlingit  and  Haida  are  divided  into  two  exogamous 
moieties,  the  Tsimshian  into  four  groups,  which  are  to  a 
limited  extent  totemic.  The  sub-groups  are  local, 
originally  exogamic  village  communities  of  mainly 
matrilineal  blood  relatives.  This  system  is  less  rigid 
among  the  southern  peoples.  Among  the  Kwakiutl  a 
child  belongs  by  blood  to  both  father's  and  mother's 
family,  but  descent  is  practically  matrilineal ;  clan-legend 
and  crest  constitute  title  to  property  for  men,  and  these 
are  not  inherited  but  acquired  by  marriage.  The  village 
communities  are  mainly  exogamic.  There  are  four 
classes  of  society-^chiefs,  nobles,  common  people,  and 


82  The  Races  of   Man 

slaves.  During  the  summer  months  society  is  organised 
on  a  totemic  sept  system  ;  during  the  winter  ceremonial 
season  the  place  of  the  sept  is  taken  by  a  number  of 
societies,  namely  the  groups  of  all  those  individuals  upon 
whom  the  same  or  almost  the  same  power  or  secret  has 
been  bestowed  by  one  of  the  spirits. 

They  have  a  highly  developed  system  of  barter  of  which 
the  blanket  is  now  the  unit  of  value,  formerly  the  units 
were  elk-skins,  canoes  and  slaves;  certain  symbolic 
objects  have  attained  fanciful  values.  A  vast  credit 
system  has  grown  up,  based  on  the  custom  of  loaning 
property;  the  festival  at  which  this  occurs  is  called 
"  potlatch." 

The  religion  of  these  peoples  is  bound  up  with  their  belief 
in  animal  helpers.  Supernatural  aid  is  given  by  the  spirits 
to  those  who  win  their  favour.  The  Kwakiutl  believe 
their  clans  to  have  been  founded  by  ancestors  who  had 
certain  relations  with  supernatural  beings  and  obtained 
from  them  crests,  names,  dances,  etc.  These  spirits  are 
supposed  to  visit  the  people  every  year. 

The  raven  is  the  chief  figure  in  the  mythology  of  this 
region ;  he  regulates  the  phenomena  of  nature,  procures 
fire,  daylight  and  freshwater,  and  teaches  men  the  arts. 
In  some  places  the  mink  assumes  this  role,  or  the  bluejay. 

Indians  of  the  Northern  Interior,  or  Athapascans. 

These  tribes  are  more  correctly  termed  Dene.  The 
northern  Dene  are  timid,  cowardly,  honest,  and  formerly 
chaste;  the  southern  are  more  manly.  All  are  by  neces- 
sity hunting  and  fishing  peoples,  but  the  northern  tribes 
are  among   the  most  primitive  of  all  American  stocks. 


JICARILLA     APACHE 


Frontispiece] 


[Races  of  Man. 


Distribution  of  Races  and   Peoples  83 

These  make  rude  pottery  and  weave  a  sort  of  cloth.  The 
eastern  Dene  are  patrilineal,  nomad  hunters,  who  gather 
berries  and  roots.  The  western  are  semi-sedentary 
owing  to  the  abundance  of  salmon ;  they  are  divided  into 
exogamous,  matrilineal,  totemic  clans.  There  is  a  belief 
in  guardian  spirits,  and  shamanism  obtains.  The 
mythology  almost  always  refers  to  a  "  transformer " 
who  visited  the  world  when  incomplete  and  set  things 
in  order. 

Tribes  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

The  Salish  tribes  are  closely  allied  to  the  Athapascans. 
The  coastal  Salish  have  abundance  of  fish,  especially 
salmon;  they  have  reached  considerable  prosperity  and 
are  lavish  in  their  display  of  wealth.  The  advantage  of 
location  and  facility  of  communication  by  canoes  enabled 
them  to  become  relatively  civilised,  as  is  shown  by  their 
social  organisation  with  its  rigid  castes,  their  village  life, 
secret  societies  and  greater  skill  in  decorative  art. 

The  plateau  Salish  are  more  democratic,  less  settled, 
and  more  individualistic  in  religious  matters  than  the 
coastal.  The  previous  totemism  is  largely  replaced  by  a 
belief  in  supernatural  helpers,  personifications  of  '  sulia,' 
or  that  mystery  which  prevades  North  American  religion. 
The  system  of  obtaining  supernatural  aid  is  more 
developed  on  the  coast,  where  the  '  sulia '  becomes 
hereditary  in  families,  and  its  emblem  persists  as  the 
family  crest. 

The  Californian  tribes  fall,  both  culturally  and  linguis- 
tically into  three  groups,  of  which  the  central  is  much 
the  largest,  the  culture  of  that  area  being  more  general  in 


84  The  Races  of  Man 

type.  These  tribes  are  characterised  by  their  use  of 
the  acorn  for  food  and  the  absence  of  the  canoe.  The 
chief  tribe  of  this  group,  the  Maidu,  practises  an  annual 
ceremony  of  "  burning,"  when  the  property  of  those  who 
have  died  within  the  past  five  years  is  destroyed  so  that 
the  articles  may  pass  to  the  spirit  world  for  use  by  the 
owner.  The  north-western  and  south-western  groups 
are  mainly  differentiated  from  the  central  by  their 
dependence  on  fish  for  food,  and  by  the  extensive  use  of 
the  canoe. 

South  of  the  Salish,  and  east  of  the  Californian  areas 
lie  the  Shahaptian  and  the  vast  Shoshonean  tracts  of 
country,  the  latter  extending  to  the  coast  in  the  south  of 
California.  The  culture  of  these  peoples  is  distinguished 
by  an  extremely  loose  social  organisation,  lack  of  elabor- 
ate ceremonials,  a  completely  different  style  of  art,  and^ 
possibly,  a  mythology  rather  resembling  that  of  the  tribes 
of  the  east  than  the  north-west  coast  type  (Farrand). 

The  Lower  Californians  belong  to  the  Yuman  family  ; 
they  are  a  collecting  people  of  very  low  stage  of  cultural 
and  linguistic  development. 

The  Seri  of  north-west  Mexico  are  the  least  advanced 
and  most  isolated  tribe  in  North  America.  Their  most 
esteemed  virtue  is  shedding  alien  blood,  and  their 
blackest  crime  is  alien  marriage.  Mother-right  obtains 
perhaps  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  any  known  people, 
and  it  is  only  in  the  chase  or  on  the  war-path  that  men 
come  to  the  front.  Polygyny  prevails.  The  tribe  is  com- 
posed of  exogamic,  m at ri lineal,  totemic  clans.  Most  of 
their  food  is  eaten  raw  ;  they  do  not  cultivate  the  soil,  and 
the  dog  is  the  only  domestic  animal.     Their  houses  are 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  85 

flimsy  huts.     They    make    pottery,    and   rafts  of  canes. 
Bows  and  arrows  are  extensively  used  ;  there  is  no  knife. 

Tribes  of  the  Great  Plains. 

These  tribes  contain  representatives  of  various  stocks, 
but  chiefly  Siouan,  Caddoan  or  Pawnee,  Algonquian  and 
Kiowan.  The  Sioux  may  serve  as  typical.  They  were  a 
free  and  dominant  race  of  hunters  and  warriors,  neces- 
sarily strong  and  active.  Their  habits  centred  round  the 
buffalo,  which  provided  the  staple  materials  of  nutrition 
and  industry.  The  dog  was  domesticated  before  the 
horse  was  acquired  in  the  eighteenth  century.  They  also 
made  use  of  nuts,  berries  and  roots  for  food,  but  did  not 
cultivate  the  soil  to  any  extent.  Their  houses  consisted 
of  tent-shaped  huts  of  saplings  covered  with  brush,  bark 
or  skins  when  in  the  woodlands ;  on  the  plains  earth 
lodges  were  built  for  winter,  and  tipis,  or  tents  of  long 
poles  covered  with  skin,  or  in  later  times  canvas,  for 
summer.  Their  weapons  were  tomahawk,  club,  flint 
knife,  and  bow  and  arrow ;  they  were  made  of  stone, 
wood,  bone  and  horn.  Rude  pottery  and  basketry  were 
made  but  wood  and  skins  were  the  raw  materials  of 
domestic  appliances.  Drawing  and  painting  were  done  on 
prepared  buffalo  skins,  and  elaborately  carved  pipes  were 
made  for  ceremonial  use. 

The  Sioux  were  divided  into  kinship  groups,  with 
inheritance  as  a  rule  in  the  male  line.  The  woman  was 
autocrat  of  the  home.  Exogamy  was  strictly  enforced  in 
the  clan,  but  marriage  within  the  tribe  or  with  related 
tribes  was  encouraged.  The  marriage  was  arranged  by 
the    parents,  and  polygyny   was  common  where  means 


; 


/ 


85  The  Races  of  Man 

would  permit.  Government  consisted  in  chieftainship 
acquired  by  personal  merit.  The  older  men  exercised 
considerable  influence. 

Ownership  of  land  was  vested  in  the  group  who 
occupied  it.  Food  was  shared  in  common,  the  procurer 
having  special  privileges.  Huts,  dogs,  weapons,  etc., 
were  personal  property,  and  such  possessions  were 
destroyed  at  the  death  of  the  owner  to  provide  for  his 
wants  in  the  spirit-world. 

Their  religious  conceptions  were  based  upon  a  belief 
in  "  Wakanda "  or  "  Manitou,"  an  all-pervadir^ 
spiritual  entity,  whose  cult  involved  various  shamanistic 
ceremonials  consisting  of  dancing,  chanting,  feasting  and 
fasting.  Most  distinctive  of  these  was  the  sun-dance, 
practised  by  almost  all  the  tribes  of  the  plains  except  the 
Comanche.  It  was  an  annual  festival  in  honour  of  the  sun 
lasting  four  days,  characterised  in  the  later  stages  by 
personal  torture. 

The  Pawnee  tribes  were  probably  of  southern  origin. 
They  were  more  addicted  to  agriculture  than  the  Sioux, 
raising  crops  of  maize,  pumpkins  and  squashes.  The 
Pawnee  type  of  hut  was  characteristic,  consisting  of  a 
circular  framework  of  poles  or  logs  covered  with  bush, 
bark  and  earth.  They  were  divided  into  kinship  groups, 
distinguished  by  totems,  and  inheritance  was  in  the  male 
line.  The  tribes  were  divided  into  bands  under  a  chief, 
whose  office  was  hereditary  in  the  male  line  and  whose 
power  was  more  absolute  than  usual  among  Indians.  Their 
religious  ceremonials  were  similar  to  but  more  elaborate 
than  those  of  the  Sioux,  and  were  formerly  distinguished 
by  human  sacrifices  to  the  morning  star  at  the  annual 


on  of  Races  and  Peoples  87 

corn-planting,  the  victim  being  usually  a  captive  girl  from 
a  hostile  tribe  (Farrand). 

Northern  Tribes  of  the  Eastern  Woodlands. 

These  consist  of  Algonquians  and  Iroquois.  The 
Ojibwa,  the  chief  central  Algonquian  tribe,  were  a  typical 
people  of  the  woods.  The  northern  branch  were  mild, 
harmless  hunters,  the  southern  led  a  sort  of  sedentary 
life  part  of  the  time ;  maize,  pumpkins,  and  beans  were 
cultivated,  and  wild  rice  collected  ;  much  of  the  food  was 
obtained  by  hunting  and  fishing.  They  were  hard 
fighters  and  beat  back  the  raids  of  the  Iroquois  on  the 
east  and  of  the  Foxes  on  the  south,  and  drove  the  Sioux 
before  them  out  of  the  plains.  They  were  organised  in 
many  exogamous  clans ;  descent  was  patrilineal,  though 
matrilineal  in  most  of  the  other  tribes.  The  clan  system 
was  totemic.  There  was  a  clan  chief  and  generally  a 
tribal  chief  as  well,  chosen  from  one  clan  in  which  the 
office  was  hereditary.  His  authority  was  rather 
indefinite.  As  regards  the  religion  of  this  group  "there 
was  a  firm  belief  in  a  cosmic  mystery  present  through- 
out all  Nature;  it  was  called  Manitou.  It  was  natural  to 
identify  the  Manitou  with  both  animate  and  inanimate 
objects,  and  the  impulse  was  strong  to  enter  into 
personal  relation  with  the  mystic  power.  There  was  one 
personification  of  the  cosmic  mystery,  it  was  into  an 
animate  being  called  the  Great  Manitou  "  (VV.  Jones). 

The  famous  League  of  the  Iroquois  was  formed 
between  1400  and  1450  A.D.  Each  of  the  five  tribes 
remained  independent  in  matters  of  local  concern,  but 
supreme  authority  was  delegated  to  a  council  of  elected 

o 


83  The  Races  op  Man 

sachems.  So  successful  was  this  confederacy  that  for 
l  centuries  it  enjoyed  complete  supremacy  over  its  neigh- 
's bours,  until  it  controlled  the  country  from  Hudson  Bay 
.  to  North  Carolina.  The  powerful  Ojibwa  at  the  east  of 
Lake  Superior  checked  their  north-western  expansion, 
and  their  own  kindred,  the  Cherokee,  stopped  their  pro- 
gress southwards.  The  Hurons  were  practically  wiped 
out  by  them.  They  lived  in  "  long  houses  "  of  related 
families,  over  which  a  matron  presided;  they  afford 
an  exceedingly  good  example  of  mother-right.  The  clans 
(i;ens  of  Morgan),  which  were  always  exogamous,  were 
organised  into  phratries,  which  were  also  originally 
exogamous,  but  this  restriction  has  long  since  been 
removed  except  in  the  case  of  the  clans.  The  phratries 
had  no  strictly  governmental  functions,  and  appear  chiefly 
in  religious  ceremonies  and  games. 

Tribes  of  the  South-west. 

These  may  be  grouped  into  two  classes  according  to 
their  mode  of  living — pueblo  and  non-pueblo  peoples.  A 
•'pueblo"  is  a  village  of  a  communal  type  consisting  of 
houses  of  five  or  six  storeys  arranged  along  courts  or 
passageways,  each  storey  being  a  separate  residence, 
often  reached  from  the  roof  of  the  one  below.  The 
Pueblo  Indians  are  muscular  and  capable  of  great 
endurance,  being  able  to  carry  heavy  burdens  and  walk 
and  run' for  long  distances.  They  are  mild  and  peace- 
able in  disposition,  industrious,  and  intensely  conservative 
in  their  customs.  They  depend  mainly  on  agriculture, 
raising  crops  of  corn,  cotton,  melons,  beans,  tobacco, 
peaches,  etc.    The  men  do  spinning,  weaving,  and  knitting, 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  89 

and  make  cotton  and  woollen  garments.  The  women 
build  and  own  the  houses,  grind  the  meal,  prepare  the 
food,  and  carry  the  water  ;  in  addition  they  make  pottery 
which  has  become  famous  for  its  quality  and  decoration. 
Each  pueblo  village  has  a  peace-chief  or  governor  and 
councillors,  and  a  war-chief.  The  clans  are  numerous 
and  form  the  entire  basis  of  their  social  and  religious 
organisation.  Marriage  is  monogamous,  the  children 
belonging  to  the  mother's  clan  and  the  daughters 
inheriting  her  property.  Private  property  in  land  is  not 
recognised. 

The  Pueblo  Indians  are  very  religious,  much  of  their 
time  being  spent  in  elaborate  ceremonials  which  are  very 
complex,  sometimes  lasting  over  a  week.  These  are 
controlled  by  secret  societies  or  priesthoods,  of  which 
there  are  several  in  each  village.  The  purpose  of  the 
ceremonies  is  to  obtain  rain,  the  very  existence  of  the 
Pueblo  Indians  being  dependent  on  the  crops,  notably 
corn. 


Central  America. 

The  greater  part  of  southern  Central  America  is 
inhabited  by  the  Maya  race,  a  branch  of  which  formerly 
extended  on  to  the  plateau  of  Mexico,  and  was  known  as 
the  Toltecs.  North  and  south  of  these  latter  were,  and  to 
some  extent  still  are,  the  Otomi,  Tarasco,  Mistcca,  and 
Zapoteca  peoples.  A  thousand  years  ago  the  western 
half  of  Northern  Mexico  was  occupied  by  the  Nahua, 
one  tribe  of  whom,  the  Aztecs,  pressed  the  aboriginal 
population    of    Southern     Mexico     before     them,     and 


90  The  Races  of   Man 

established  themselves  on  the  plateau,  where  they 
founded  the  city  of  Mexico.  The  Toltecs  disappeared  as 
such,  but  their  culture  was  assimilated  by  the  ruder 
Aztecs;  the  descendants  of  the  former  are  still  to  be 
found  in  Guatemala  and  Yucatan,  and  are  now  merged 
among  their  Maya  kinsfolk.  The  remarkable  culture 
that  the  Spaniards  found  in  Mexico  was  due  mainly  to 
the  intelligent  and  gifted  Maya  peoples ;  it  was  entirely 
indigenous,  and  owed  nothing  to  the  culture  of  the 
Pueblo  Indians  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  or  to  the 
civilisations  of  the  Andean  regions  of  South  America. 
The  Nahua  or  Nahuatlaca  appear  to  have  come  originally 
from  the  far  north. 

South  America. 

Following  Deniker  the  natives  may  be  grouped  accord- 
ing to  the  four  great  natural  regions: — (1)  the  Cordillera 
of  the  Andes;  (2)  the  plains  of  the  Amazon  and  the 
Orinoco,  with  Guiana;  (3)  the  table-lands  of  eastern  and 
southern  Brazil ;  (4)  the  Pampas  of  the  southern  part  of 
the  continent,  with  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

The  Cordillera  of  the  Andes. 

The  ancient  Andean  civilisation  was  the  highest 
expression  of  South  American  culture.  The  peoples  of 
this  region  consist  mainly  of  members  of  the  Chibcha 
and  Quichua  linguistic  families,  with  a  certain  number  of 
unclassified  tribes.  The  most  powerful  of  the  former 
group  were  the  Muyscas  of  the  Rio  Magdalena  valley, 
who  were  dominant  in  the  north  with  an  organised 
system  of  government  on  the  Bogota  table-land.     They 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  91 

were  surrounded  by  numerous  kindred  tribes,  still  in  a 
condition  of  savagery.  The  rigid  caste  system  of  the 
Muyscas  stifled  their  development,  and  they  are  now 
extinct. 

The  Quichua  dialects  are  still  spoken  over  the  area  of 
the  ancient  Inca  empire,  which  was  almost  contiguous  in 
the  north  with  that  of  the  Muyscas.  Three  distinct 
civilisations  had  grown  up  about  three  cultural  centres : 
that  of  the  Yuncas  (whom  Deniker  is  unable  to  classify) 
developed  about  Chimu  (Trujillo  of  the  present  day) ; 
that  of  the  Aymaras,  a  people  of  Quichuan  stock,  about 
Tiahuanaco  on  the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca; 
and  that  of  the  Quichuas  about  Cuzco.  Prior  to  the 
arrival  of  the  Europeans,  however,  the  first  two  had  been 
absorbed  by  the  third,  and  the  whole  area  constituted 
the  empire  of  the  Incas,  who  were  the  dominant  branch 
of  the  Quichuan  nation.  The  very  name  "  Inca  "  was 
afterwards  restricted  to  the  royal  family.  The  Incas  also 
conquered  the  Calchaquis,  another  Quichua-speaking 
race,  the  most  numerous  and  highly  civilised  of  the 
former  inhabitants  of  Argentina.  The  Quichuas  are 
fairly  uniform  physically ;  they  are  of  low  stature, 
1-575-1 -6m.  (5ft.  2-3in.),  thickset  and  very  strong,  with 
massive  globular  head,  aquiline  nose,  and  retreating 
forehead  due  to  cranial  deformation. 

Among  the  unclassified  Andean  peoples  mention  must 
be  made  of  the  Araucanians  (or  Mapu-che)  whose 
territory  extended  south  of  the  Peruvian  empire,  and  who 
held  their  own  against  the  Incas  and  after  them  the 
Conquistadores.  They  were  little  organised  in  time  of 
peace,  and  their  tribal  groups  at  the  present  day  are  mere 


92  The  Races  of  Man 

territorial  divisions,  such  as  Picun-che  (north-men), 
Huilli-che  (south-men),  Molu-che  (west-men),  Puen-che 
(pine-men,  i.e.,  people  of  the  central  pine  country).  The 
Puel-che  (east-men)  of  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes 
afterwards  moved  down  the  Rio  Negro  and  encountered 
the  Pampean  Indians  with  whom  they  mingled.  The 
Araucanians  have  now  adopted  the  peaceful  pursuits  of 
agriculture  and  stock-breeding,  and  the  process  ot 
assimilation,  completed  in  the  Chiloe  and  Chonos 
Archipelagoes,  is  likely  to  spread  on  the  mainland. 

Before  dealing  with  the  two  next  great  divisions,  which 
include  the  Amazonians  and  the  peoples  of  eastern 
Brazil  and  of  central  South  America,  reference  must  be 
made  to  the  race  migrations  which  have  taken  place 
throughout  this  vast  area.  The  two  chief  linguistic  sub- 
divisions of  the  Amazonians  are  the  Carib  and  the 
Arawak,  while  the  two  main  groups  of  East-Brazilians 
are  the  Tupi-Guarani  (or  Tupi),  and  the  Ges  (or  Tapuya). 
The  original  home  of  the  Arawaks  was  probably  Bolivia, 
whence  they  spread  east,  north-east,  and  south-east, 
forming  a  uniform  substratum  over  a  large  part  of  the 
north  of  South  America;  their  progress  was  only  stayed 
where  they  encountered  the  Caribs  and  Tupis.  The 
Caribs  originally  inhabited  the  upper  courses  of  the 
Tapajos  and  other  rivers  flowing  northward  into  the 
lower  Amazon,  up  which  they  moved  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon.  The  Tupis  peopled  the  upper  basin  of  the 
Paraguay,  not  far  from  the  original  Carib  region;  they 
moved  downstream  to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  turning  north- 
ward at  the  mouth  and  skirting  the  whole  coast  of  Brazil 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  93 

till  they  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  There  they 
met  with  the  Carihs  whom  they  forced  to  turn  north- 
wards, while  they  themselves  passed  along  the  southern 
bank  of  the  Amazon,  the  Arawaks  being  on  the  northern. 
Tupi  tribes  (Omaguas  and  Cocamas)  even  reached  as  far 
west  as  the  Putumayo  and  the  Maranon.  The  Caribs 
pushed  the  Arawaks  before  them,  ultimately  prevailing 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  to  the  Lago  de 
Maracaibo.  Their  conquest  of  the  Arawaks  of  the 
Antilles  was  arrested  at  the  Discovery.  The  Ges  peoples 
lived  in  Brazil  from  the  earliest  times,  but  took  no  active 
part  in  history.  It  is  possible  that  they  once  extended 
all  over  Brazil  from  the  Amazon  watershed  to  the 
Parana,  but  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest  they  only 
inhabited  the  hill  country  of  the  interior. 

The  Plains  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Orinoco 
with  Guiana. 

The  northern  part  of  South  America  east  of  the 
Cordilleras  is  peopled  mainly  by  Caribs  and  Arawaks, 
but  about  the  head-waters  of  the  Amazon  and  its 
tributaries  are  tribes  of  the  Miranha  and  Pano  linguistic 
families,  and  some  unclassified  peoples  occur  there  and 
in  the  basin  of  the  Orinoco. 

The  northern  Caribs  are  l*594m.  (5ft  2fin.)  in  height 
with  a  cephalic  index  of  81*3 ;  those  of  the  Xingu  are 
taller,  l*664m.  (5ft.  5 Jin.),  with  a  cephalic  index  of  79*6. 
The  Caribs  were  formerly  cannibals,  and  most  ferocious  in 
their  methods  of  warfare  especially  towards  the  Arawaks. 
The  following  ethnical  characteristics  of  the  Caribs  may 


94  The  Races  of  Man 

be  noted : — the  use  of  the  hammocks,  painting  of  the 
body,  practice  of  couvade  (lying-in  of  the  father  after  the 
birth  of  a  child) ;  the  chief  weapon  under  primitive  con- 
ditions is  the  stone  axe,  but  the  northern  Caribs  use  the 
blow-pipe  and  poisoned  arrows  which  are  unknown  to  the 
southerners,  who  use  the  bow  and  arrow.  The  Bakairi 
of  the  upper  Xingu  are  a  typical  primitive  Carib  tribe. 
They  are  hunters  and  fishers,  and  to  some  extent  agri- 
culturists as  well.  Their  clothing  is  of  the  slightest,  but 
they  are  fond  of  shell  or  seed  necklaces;  their  huts  are 
beehive-shaped ;  implements  are  personal  property,  but 
plantations  belong  to  the  community;  chieftainship  is 
hereditary  from  father  to  son  or  to  sister's  son.  They 
have  very  little  religion,  and  their  remarkable  mask- 
dances  do  not  appear  to  have  much  ceremonial 
importance. 

The  difference  between  the  northern  and  southern 
Avawaks  is  more  pronounced  than  with  the  Caribs;  those 
of  Guiana  and  also  of  the  Purus  basin  (western  Brazil) 
are  l-55-l-59m.  (5ft.  l-2^in.)  in  height,  with  a  cephalic 
index  of  83-4,  while  the  Arawaks  of  the  Xingu  are  taller, 
l-64m.  (5ft.  4  Jin.),  and  have  a  cephalic  index  of  78*2. 
The  blow-pipe  is  used  only  by  the  upper  Amazon  tribes ; 
garments  are  of  fibre  or  bark-cloth,  and  ornaments  of 
feathers  and  teeth ;  their  implements  are  of  wood  and 
stone. 

The  Pano  tribes  are  in  a  state  of  transformation,  some 
having  taken  to  trading  and  agriculture.  The  Miranhas 
are  a  primitive  and  warlike  hunting  people,  distinguish- 
able by  their  peculiar  nose-ornament,  large  shell  studs 
being  inserted  in  the  nostrils.     Among  the  unclassified 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  95 

tribes  of  the  Amazon  head-waters,  the  Zaparos  (or 
Jeberos)  are  remarkable  on  account  of  their  shamanistic 
religion,  and  the  Jevaros  (or  Civaros)  for  their  practice 
of  head-hunting,  the  scalps  of  their  enemies  being 
preserved  and  regarded  as  valuable  trophies. 

There  are  four  main  linguistic  groups  of  peoples  in 
Guiana: — Warrau,  Arawak,  Wapiana  (including  true 
Wapiana,  Atorais  and  Amaripas),  and  Carib  (including 
Carinya  or  true  Carib,  Ackawoi,  Macusi,  and  Arecuna). 
who  all  belong  to  the  same  race.  The  coast  tract  is  in- 
habited by  Warraus  and  Arawaks,  with  scattered  settle- 
ments of  Carinya.  The  forest  region  is  almost  entirely 
inhabited  by  Ackawoi,  with  a  few  Carinya  camps.  The 
savanna  region,  beginning  with  the  north  towards  the 
Orinoco,  is  peopled  by  various  tribes:  —  Arecunas, 
Macusis,  Wapianas  Tarumas  (a  tribe  of  unknown 
affinities,  which  came  from  the  south),  and  an  isolated 
tribe  of  Caribs. 

The  natives  are  all  of  small  stature;  the  main 
characters  are  a  protuberant  stomach  from  excessive 
drinking  of  paiwari  (an  intoxicant  made  by  chewing 
cassava  bread),  and  sleekness  and  fulness  of  skin  from 
eating  cassava.  The  skin  is  of  a  red  cinnamon  colour, 
the  hair  straight,  long  and  black,  the  features  gentle. 
They  are  weak  in  constitution.  Their  habits  are 
exceptionally  cleanly.  They  are  affectionate  in  domestic 
relations,  and  their  women  are  well  treated,  and  have 
considerable  influence,  but  old  people  are  not  well 
treated. 

The  men  are  hunters,  and  the  women  cultivate  cassava. 
The  clothing  of  the  men  is  a  strip  of  cloth  passed  between 


96  The  Races  of   Man 

the  legs  and  fastened  to  a  belt ;  that  of  the  women,  an 
apron  of  beads.  The  houses  are  built  on  piles  in  the 
swamps ;  in  the  forests  they  are  usually  rectangular, 
with  a  ridge-pole,  and  roofed  with  palm  leaves.  On  the 
savannas,  walls  daubed  with  mud  are  added.  Their 
weapons  are  the  bow  and  arrow,  and  blow-pipe. 

The  father  is  the  head  of  the  household,  and  the  chief 
authorities  in  a  group  are  the  headman  and  the  peaiman 
(or  medicine-man).  Most  tribes  are  polygynous,  but  the 
Caribs  are  mainly  monogamous;  the  polygynous  Warrau 
are  also  polyandrous.  Marriage  is  mostly  a  matter  of 
purchase,  and  the  husband  lives  with,  works  for,  and  is 
subject  to  his  father-in-law.  Descent  is  reckoned  through 
the  mother.  The  custom  of  carefully  tending  the  father 
on  the  birth  of  a  child  (couvade)  prevails.  Religion 
consists  mainly  in  the  propitiation  of  evil  spirits  by 
mediation  of  the  peaiman. 

Very  scanty  information  exists  on  the  natives  of  the 
West  Indies.  The  peaceful  Arawaks  appear  to  have 
been  the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  the  islands  being  invaded 
later  by  the  piratical  and  slave-hunting  Caribs.  St. 
Vincent  and  Dominica  were  the  principal  rendezvous  of 
the  insular  Caribs,  although  they  occupied  all  the  islands 
from  Puerto  Rico  to  the  Orinoco,  and  raided  at  times 
Jamaica  and  San  Domingo,  but  had  no  permanent 
villages  north  of  Jamaica;  a  few  still  exist  in  St.  Vincent 
and  possibly  elsewhere.  The  « Yellow  Caribs  '  must  be 
distinguished  from  the  '  Black  Caribs'  or  Karifs,  who  are 
a  Carib-Negro  mixture. 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  97 


Eastern  and  Southern  Brazil. 

Eastern  Brazil  is  mainly  occupied  by  peoples  of  the 
Ges  family,  formerly  called  Tapnyas.  This  region  is 
poor  in  resources,  and  the  people  are  generally 
more  backward  than  the  Amazonians.  Ethnical 
characteristics  common  to  these  tribes  are: — communal 
houses  with  separate  hearths  for  the  various  families, 
absence  of  the  hammock,  ignorance  of  navigation, 
wearing  of  plugs  (botoques)  in  the  lower  lip  or  ears, 
arrows  barbed  on  one  side.  The  best  known  element 
in  this  group  is  the  Botocudo  people.  They  are 
nomad  hunters  and  collectors,  with  implements 
of  wood  and  vegetable  fibre,  living  in  flimsy  huts  of 
branches.  They  go  nude,  and  wear  the  teeth  of  those 
they  have  eaten  strung  on  necklaces.  They  are  cannibals, 
eating  both  enemies  and  fellow  tribesmen.  Their  women 
are  brutally  treated.  They  are  of  low  stature,  l*59m. 
(5ft.  2^in.),  and  have  relatively  narrow  heads,  their 
cephalic  index  varying  from  about  76  to  78.  Many  of 
the  Brazilian  tribes  have  dwindled  to  a  few  individuals 
living  under  the  protection  of  the  white  man. 

Tupi  tribes  speaking  various  dialects  occur  in  different 
parts  from  Guiana  to  Paraguay,  and  from  the  coast  of 
Brazil  to  the  Cordilleras.  At  the  time  of  the  Conquest 
they  were  cannibals  occupying  the  Atlantic  coast  from  the 
Para  to  24°  south  latitude,  and  the  Amazon  valley  up  to 
60°  west  longitude.  They  were  largely  exterminated  by 
the  Portuguese,  but  their  language  became  the  means  of 
communicating  with  the  Indians  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay. 


98  The  Races  of  Man 

The  eastern,  or  Guarani  Tupis,  formerly  very  numer- 
ous in  South  Brazil,  now  fqrm  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  population  of  ParaguaWind  Missiones  (Argentina). 
Those  of  Paraguay  have  become  largely  hispanified. 
Some  forest  tribes  retain  the  real  type,  such  for  instance 
as  the  Cainguas  or  Kaigguas,  who  are  scattered  about  in 
small  groups  over  the  southern  jjart  of  the  region  men- 
tioned. They  are  short  (5ft.  3in.)7\ith  a  cephalic  index 
of  80-4,  bronzed  skin,  lank  or  wavy  hair,  and  prominent 
cheekbones.  They  go  almost  nude  ;  fire  is  obtained  by 
friction;  they  are  agriculturists,  weavers  and  potters. 
Other  members  of  the  eastern  Tupi  group  are  the 
Tacunas  and  Jacunda  of  the  lower  Xingu,  the  Kamayuras 
of  the  upper  Xingu,  the  Mauhes  between  that  river  and 
the  Madeira,  the  Apiacas  of  the  Tapajos,  and  the 
Chiquitos  and  Chiriguanos  of  Bolivia ;  the  last  two  are 
now  largely  hispanified. 

The  western  Tupis  comprise  the  Mundurukus  of  the 
middle  Tapajos,  and  the  Yurunas  and  Aueto  of  the  Xingu. 
The  Miuidur.ukus  are  head-hunters  of  extreme  ferocity  in 
warfare  ;  the  rank  of  chief  is  attained  by  the  capture  of 
at  least  ten  heads.  Youths  go  through  an  initiation  cere- 
mony in  the  form  of  a  glove-dance  ;  the  bachelors  live  in 
separate  huts. 

In  addition  to  Caribs,  Arawaks,  Ges,  and  Tupis,  there 
are  representatives  of  other  ethnic  groups  to  be  met  with 
in  Matto  Grosso  and  south-eastern  Bolivia.  The  more 
important  of  these  are  the  Karayas,  of  whom  there  are  two 
sections  knowing  nothing  of  each  other,  one  in  the  Xingu 
valley,  the  other  in  that  of  the  Araguaya.  They  are  of 
medium   height,  and  narrow  head    (cephalic    index  73). 


Distribution  of  Races  and  Peoples  99 

They  do  not  use  hammocks,  are  good  navigators,  and  the 
women  speak  a  different  language  from  the  men,  appar- 
ently an  older  form.  The  Trumai  of  the  upper  Xingu 
are  short,  with  medium  heads  (cephalic  index  81-1), 
retreating  forehead  and  convex  nose.  The  Bororos  are 
scattered  from  the  upper  Paraguay  to  the  upper  Parana. 
They  are  tall,  l*74m.  (5ft.  8 Jin.),  with  a  cephalic  index 
of  81-5.  They  are  a  purely  hunting  and  collecting  people, 
who  never  practise  agriculture,  nor  have  they  domestic 
animals.  They  do  not  use  canoes.  The  women  wear  a 
broad  tight  belt  and  perineal  band,  the  men  a  narrow 
belt.  They  are  very  fond  of  feather  decorations ;  both 
sexes  pierce  the  lobe  of  the  ear,  and  the  men  bore  the 
lower  lip.  The  men  live  in  a  clubhouse,  and  do  not  settle 
down  and  marry  till  they  are  about  forty,  when  they  live 
in  very  poor  huts.  They  sometimes  capture  women  and 
take  them  to  the  clubhouse.  The  married  men  arrange 
the  affairs  of  the  community,  and  a  chief  commands  in 
war.  The  dead  are  temporarily  buried,  and  later  there 
is  a  special  funeral  ceremony.  The  souls  of  the  dead  are 
believed  to  enter  the  bodies  of  birds. 

The  Pampas  of  the  South,  with  Tierra  del  Fnego. 

This  division  comprises  the  great  plain  beyond  30° 
south  latitude,  which  passes  from  the  rich  pasturage  of 
Gran  Ch'aco  to  Pampas,  and  then  to  the  bare  plateaus  of 
Patagonia.  The  inhabitants  of  the  plain  are  nomadic 
and  pastoral  in  their  way  of  life  since  the  introduction  of 
the  horse.  Only  hybridised  descendants  remain  of  the 
ancient  peoples  who  lived  here  and  in  Uruguay  at  the  time 


100  The  Races  of    Man 

I 

of  the  Conquest,  such  as  the  Talhuets  and  Abipones, 
who  represent  some  of  the  old  members  of  the 
Guaycuru  family.  This  family  still  survives  in  its  pure 
form  in  some  Chaco  tribes,  such  as  the  Tobas, 
Matacos,  and  Payaguas ;  others,  such  as  the  Lenguas, 
Sanapanas,  and  Angaites,  belong  to  the  Ennema 
linguistic  family.  South  of  the  Chaco,  in  the  Pampas 
and  the  north  Patagonian  tableland,  the  Guaycurus  of 
the  north,  and  the  Patagonians  of  the  south,  have 
been  absorbed  or  modified  by  the  Araucanians  from 
the  west,  and  the  Europeans  from  the  east.  New 
tribes  have  thus  arisen,  such  as  the  Puel-che  from 
Patagonians,  and  Araucanians  with  a  Guaycuru  strain, 
and  Gauchos  from  Guaycurus  and  Europeans.  To 
avoid  confusion  it  must  be  noted  that  the  term  Puel-che 
(east-men)  was  applied  first  to  the  pure  Araucanians 
of  the  east  side  of  the  Andes,  and  then  to  the 
Pampeans,  and  is  still  used  indiscriminately  for  the 
pure  Araucanians  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  Pampeans, 
and  nomads  generally  as  far  south  as  the  Rio 
Negro. 

The  Europeans  gradually  pushed  the  Puel-che  and 
Araucanians  southward,  the  Pampeans  migrating  en 
masse  in  1881  beyond  the  Rio  Negro,  where  they 
mingled  with  some  of  the  Patagonians  and  drove  the 
rest  beyond  the  Rio  Santa  Cruz.  Some  two  thousand 
Patagonians,  or  Tehuel-che,  now  live  between  this  river 
and  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  Those  inland  and  the  Onas 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego  best  preserve  the  Patagonian  type. 
They  are  very  tall,  l-73-l-83m.  (5ft.  Sin.  or  6ft.),  according 
to   different   accounts,    with    a    cephalic    index    of    85, 


Plate  X.] 


FATAGONIANS. 


[Races  of  Man,  p.  100. 


Distribution   of  Races  and  Peoples  101 

» 

elongated  face,  slightly  oblique  eyes,  prominent  cheek 
bones,  black  lank  hair,  and  dark  coppery  complexion* 
They  subsist  mainly  on  the  flesh  of  the  guanaco  and 
other  wild  animals ;  horse-flesh  is  also  used  by  some  ;  a 
few  wild  vegetables  are  eaten,  but  nothing  is  cultivated* 
They  are  a  well-clothed  people,  not  even  the  children  go 
nude ;  silver  ornaments  are  worn.  Their  dwellings  are 
leather  tents  or  brushwood  huts,  and  characteristic 
weapons  are  lassos  and  bolas.  They  are  divided  into  a 
number  of  independent  clans,  each  with  its  hereditary 
chief  with  somewhat  restricted  power.  They  believe  in 
demons,  over  which  medicine-men  are  supposed  to  have 
power.  The  dead  were  till  recently  buried  in  a  sitting 
posture,  and  weapons  were  also  put  in  the  grave. 

The  Fuegians  inhabit  the  south  and  west  of  Tierra  del 
Puego  and  the  off-lying  archipelagoes.  They  consist  of 
two  tribes,  the  Yaligans  and  the  Alakalufs,  of  whom 
the  former  are  probably  the  true  aborigines  and  may  be 
taken  as  typical  of  the  Fuegians.  They  are  of  low 
stature,  with  a  large  head,  angular  face,  short  nose 
depressed  at  root  and  wide  at  nostrils,  large  thick  lips, 
and  small  black  eyes  often  obliquely  set.  Their  food 
consists  mainly  of  mussels  and  animal  food,  but  berries 
are  eaten  in  summer  and  roots  in  winter.  They  were 
said  formerly  to  eat  their  old  women.  They  have  no 
kitchen  utensils  nor  pottery.  As  clothing  they  wear  a 
small  piece  of  skin  over  the  shoulders,  and  the  women 
have  in  addition  a  very  short  narrow  apron.  Their 
dwellings  are  flimsy  huts,  made  of  logs  and  branches. 
Hunting  is  undertaken  by  the  men  and  fishing  by  the 
women.   They  make  perishable  bark  canoes.    Monogamy 


r 


102  The  Races  of   Man 

is  the  general  rule.  They  do  not  recognise  virtue,  but 
they  do  not  practise  vice.  Modesty  is  strongly 
developed  ;  compassion  is  almost  unknown.  They  are 
courageous,  vain,  and  susceptible.  Lying  is  no  evil,  but 
the  murderer  is  banned  by  all. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


This  Bibliography  is  intended  merely  as  a  guide  to  the 
elementary  student,  and  only  those  books  are  included 
which  have  reference  to  my  immediate  object,  as  further 
references  to  other  books  or  to  memoirs  and  papers  will  be 
found  in  them.  As  this  little  book  is  designed  to  help  the 
beginner  in  ethnology,  very  few  references  are  made  to 
works  in  other  languages.  The  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Anthropological  Institute  is  a  mine  of  information,  as  are 
the  journals  of  kindred  foreign  societies.  The  numerous 
books  by  travellers  and  missionaries,  which  deal  with 
special  areas  and  peoples,  should  also  be  consulted. 

THE  GENERAL  SUBJECT. 

Deniker,  J.— "The  Races  of  Man,"  1900. 
Duckworth,     W.     L.     H.  —   "  Morphology       and 

Anthropology,"  1904. 
Haddon,  A.  C.— "The  Study  of  Man,"  1898. 
Keane,  A.  H.— "  Ethnology,"  1901 ;  "  Man  :  Past  and 

Present,"  1905;   "The  World's  Peoples,"  1908. 
Ratzel,  P.  —"The  History  of  Mankind"  (translation), 

1896-8. 
Reclus,  J.  J.  E.— "The    Earth  and  its  Inhabitants" 

(translation),  1875. 
Ripley,  W.  Z.— "The  Races  of  Europe,"  1900. 
Topinard,  P. — "Anthropology"  (translation),  1890. 
Tylor,  E.  B.—"  Anthropology,"  1895. 

103  H 


104  Bibliography 

Wiedersheim,  R. — "The  Structure  of  Man  "  (trans- 
lation), 1895. 
Wood,  J.  G.— "The  Natural  History  of  Man." 

Other  books  that  should  be  consulted  are : — "  The 
World's  History,"  editor,  Helmolt,  H.  F.  (various 
volumes);  "Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geography  and 
Travel "  (various  volumes) ;  "  The  Living  Races  of 
Mankind." 

OCEANIA. 

Australians. 

•  Curr,  E.  M.— "  The  Australian  Race,"  1886-87. 
Gennep,  A.  Van. — "  Mythes  et  Legendes  d'Australie  : 

etudes  d'Ethnographie  et  de  Sociologie,"   1906. 
Howitt,  A.  W. — "The  Native  Tribes  of  South-east 

Australia,"  1904. 
Mathew,  J.—"  Eaglehawk  and  Crow,"  1899. 
Roth,    W.    E.— "  Bulletins    of    North    Queensland 

Ethnography,"  1901. 
Smyth,  R.  B.— "  The  Aborigines  of  Victoria,"  1878. 
Spencer,  B.,  and  Gillen,  F.  J. — "The  Native  Tribes 

of  Central   Australia,"   1899;    "The    Northern 

Tribes  of  Central  Australia,"  1904. 
-Thomas,    N.    W.— "  Natives    of    Australia,"     1906; 

"  Kinship  Organisation,  etc.,  in  Australia,"  1906. 

Papuans  and  Melanesians. 

-  Codrington,  R.  H.— "  The  Melanesians,"  1891. 
Guppy,  H.  B.— "The  Solomon  Islands,"  1887. 
-  Haddon,  A.  C— "  Head-hunters,"   1901;   "Reports 
Cambridge  Expedition  to  Torres  Straits." 
Parkinson,    R. — "  Dreissig   Jahre    in    der    Sudsee," 

1907. 
Roth,  H.  L.— "The  Aborigines  of  Tasmania,"   1889. 
Sande,    G.    A.    J.    van    der — "Nova    Guinea,    III. 
Ethnography  and  Anthropology,"  1907. 


Bibliography  105 

Thomson,  B.— "  The  Fijians,"   1908. 
Thomson,  J.  P.—"  British  New  Guinea,"  1892. 
Williams,  T.  and  Calvert,  J. — "  Fiji  and  the  Fijians," 
1858. 

Polynesians. 

Ellis,  W. — "Polynesian  Researches,  etc.,"  1831. 
Fornander,   A.—"  An    Account   of   the    Polynesian 

Race,"  1878-85. 
Gill,  W.  W. — "Myths  and  Songs  from  the  South 

Pacific,"  1876. 

*  Grey,  G.— "  Polynesian  Mythology,"  1853. 
Lesson,  P.  A.—"  Les  Polynesiens,"  1880-84, 
Mariner,  W. — "An  Account  of  the  Natives  of  the 

Tonga  Islands,"  1818. 
Smith,  S.  P.—"  Hawaiki,"  1904. 
Taylor,  R.— "  Te  Ika  a  Maui,"  1855. 
Turner,  G. — "  Nineteen  Years  in  Polynesia,"  1861 ; 

"Samoa,"  1884. 

AFRICA. 

Negrilloes. 

Johnston,  H.  H.— "The  Uganda  Protectorate,"  1902. 
Stanley,  H.  M.— "  In  Darkest  Africa,"  1890. 

Bushmen  and  Hottentots. 

•  Stow,  G.  W. — "  The  Native  Races  of  South  Africa," 

1905. 
Theal,    C.    M'C. — "  History    and    Ethnography    of 
South  Africa,"  1907. 

Bant  us. 

Callaway,  H.—"  Nursery  Tales,  etc,,"   1868;  "The 
Religious  System  of  the  Amazulu,"  1870. 
»  Casati,  G. — "Ten  Years  in  Equatoria"  (translation), 
1891. 
Cassalis,  E. — "The  Basutos  "  (translation),   1861. 


106  Bibliography 

Johnston,  H.  H.  (I.e.) 

Junod,  H.  A.— "Les  Ba-Ronga,"  1898. 

Kidd,    D.— "The    Essential   Kafir,"   1904;  "Savage 

Childhood,"  1906;  "Kafir  Socialism."  1908. 
Macdonald,  D.— "  Africana,"  1882. 
Stow  (I.e.),  Theal  (I.e.) 
Werner,    A. —  "The    Natives    of    British    Central 

Africa,"  1906. 

Negroes. 

Dennett,  R.  E.— "  At  the  Back  of  the  Black  Man's 
Mind,"  1906. 

Ellis,  A.  B.— "The  Tshi-speaking  Peoples,"  1887; 

"The  Ewe,"  1890;  "The  Yoruba,"  1894. 
Johnston,  H.  H.— "  Liberia,"  1906. 
Kingsley,  M.— "West  African  Studies,"  1901. 
Leonard,  A.  G.— "  The  Lower  Niger,"  1906. 
Nassau,  R.  H.— "  Fetichism  in  West  Africa,"  1904. 


Various  African  Tribes. 

Dowd,  J.— "The  Negro  Races,"  1907. 

Fritsch,     G. — "  Die     Eingeborenen    Sud-Afrika's," 
1872. 

Hartmann,  R.— "  Die  Nigritier,"  1876. 

Hollis,  A.  C— "The  Masai,"  1905;  "The  Nandi," 
1909. 

Johnston— "The  Uganda  Protectorate,"  1902. 
Klunzinger,    C.    B. — "Upper   Egypt"  (translation), 
1878. 

Preville,  A.de— "  Les  Societes  Africaines,"  1894. 


Bibliography  107 


EUROPE. 

Beddoe,  J.— "The  Races  of  Britain,"  1885. 
Borlase,  W.  C— "  The  Dolmens  of  Ireland,"  1897. 
Deniker,    J. — "  Les     Races     de     l'Europe,    I.    l'lndice 

cephalique,"   1899;    Association  Francaise  Avance, 

Sci.  (1897). 

Fouillee,    A. — "  Esquisse     psychologique    des    Peuples 
Europeans,"  1903. 

Holmes,  T.  Rice— "Ancient  Britain,"  1907. 
Mackinder,  H.  J. — "The    Racial    and    Historical    Geo- 
graphy of  Britain,"  1902. 

Rhys,  J.— "Celtic  Britain,"  1904. 

Ripley,  W.  Z.— "The  Races  of  Europe,"  1900. 

Sergi,  G.— "The  Mediterranean  Race,"  1901. 


ASIA. 

Hogarth,  D.  G.— "The  Nearer  East,"  1902. 

Jackson,  P.  G.— "The  Great  Frozen  Land,"  1895. 

Little,  A.—"  The  Farther  East." 

Stanford's  "  Compendium  of  Geography." 

"The   Jesup    North    Pacific    Expedition."      Mem.   Am. 

Mus.  Nat.  Hist.     Various  memoirs  by  Bogoras,  W., 

and  Jochelson,  W. 

India. 

Biddulph,  J.— "Tribes  of  the  Hindu-Kush,"  1880. 

Crooke,  W. — "  The  Tribes  and  Castes  of  the  North-west 
Provinces  and  Oudh,"  1896;  "The  North-west 
Provinces  of  India,"  1897;  "Natives  of  India."  1907. 


108  Bibliography 

Dalton,  E.T. — "  Descriptive  Ethnology  of  Bengal,"  1872. 
Dubois,   J.   A. — "  Hindu    Manners,    etc.,"    (translation), 

1897. 
Gait,  E.  A.— "A  History  of  Assam,"  1906. 
Gurdon,  P.  R.  T.— "The  Khasis,"  1907. 
Hodson,  T.  C— "  The  Meitheis,"  1908. 
Holdich,  T.  A.—"  India,"  1904. 

Hunter,  W.W.— "A  Statistical  Account  of  Assam,"  1879. 
Kennedy,    J. — "The    Mediaeval    History    of    Northern 

India";  cf.  "The  Indian  Empire,"  vol.  II. 
Man,  E.  H. — "Aboriginal    Inhabitants  of  the  Andaman 

Islands,"  Journal  Anth.  Inst.  XII.,  1882. 

Marshall,  W.  E. — "  A  Phrenologist  among  the  Todas," 

1873. 
Oppert,  G.— "The  Original  Inhabitants  of  India,"   1894. 
Powell,  B.  H.  Baden — "The  Indian  Village  Community," 

1896. 
Risley,  H.  H. — "The  Tribes  and  Castes  of  Bengal,  etc.," 

1892;  "The  People  of  India,"  1908. 
Rivers,  W.  H.  R.— "The  Todas,"  1906. 
Robertson,  G.  S. — "The    Kafirs   of   the    Hindu-Kush,' 

1896. 
Smith,  V.  A.— "The  early  History  of  India,"  1908. 
Stack,  E.— "The  Mikirs,"  1908. 
Thurston,    E. — "  Ethnographical    Notes     in     Southern 

India,"  1906. 
Ujfalvy,   C.    de. — "  Les  Aryens  au   Nord  et  au  Slid  de 

l'Hindou-Kouch,"  1896. 

See  also  "The  Indian  Empire"  (4  vols.),  being  the 
introduction  to  "The  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India,"  new 
edition,  1907;  "Census  of  India,"  "Bulletin  of  the 
Madras  Museum,"  "Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of 
Bengal,"  etc. 


Bibliography  109 

The  Malay  Peninsula  and  Burma. 

Forbes,  C.  J.  F.  S. — "  British  Burma  and  its  People," 

1878. 
Hall,  H.  P.— "  The  Soul  of  a  People,"  1898;   "A  People 

at  School,"  1906. 
Martin,     R. — •«  Die     Inlandstamme     der     Malayischen 

Halbinsel,"  1905. 
Moszkowski,  M.— "  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologie,  XL,"  1908, 

pp.  229,  634. 
Scott,  J.  G.— "The  Burman,"  1896;  "  Burma,"  1906. 
Skeat,   W.  W.— "  Malay   Magic,"    1900;  and    Blagden, 

C.   O. — "  Pagan  Races   of  the   Malay    Peninsula," 

1906. 
Swettenham,  F.  A.—"  The  Real  Malay,"  1900. 
Wilkinson,  R.  J.— "The  Peninsula  Malays,"  1906. 

Borneo. 

Furness,  W.  H. — "The  Home  Life  of  the  Borneo  Head- 

Hunters,"  1902. 
Haddon,  A.  C— "  Head-Hunters,"  1901. 
Nieuwenhuis,  A.  W. — "  Quer  durch  Borneo,"  1904-07. 
Roth,  H.  L.— "The  Natives  of  Sarawak,"  1896. 

China  and  Japan. 

Bard,  E.— "The  Chinese  at  Home." 

Batchelor,  G.— "The  Ainu  of  Japan,"  1892. 

Brinkley,  F. — "  Japan  :  Its  History,  Arts,  and  Literature  " 

(Oriental  Series),  1901. 
Carles,  W.— "  Life  in  Corea,"  1888. 
Chamberlain,  B. — "Things  Japanese,"  1891. 
Hearn,  Lafcadio — "Japan:  an  Interpretation,"  1904. 
"  History   of  the  Empire  of  Japan  "  (various  authors), 

1893. 


110  Bibliography 

Lacouperie,  Terrien  de — "The  Languages  of  China 
before  the  Chinese,"  1887  ;  "Western  origin  of  the 
early  Chinese  civilization,"  1894. 

Okakura,  Y. — "  The  Japanese  Spirit,"  1905. 

Richthofen— "  China  "  vol.  I,  1875. 

Rockhill,  W.  W.— "  Notes  on  the  Ethnology  of  Tibet," 
1895 

Smith,  A.  H.— "Chinese  Characteristics,"  1895. 


NORTH   AMERICA. 

Bancroft,  H.  H. — "The   Native    Races   of  the    Pacific 

States,"  1874-82. 
Boas,  P. — "  Social  Organization  of  the  Kwakiutl,"  U.S. 

Nat.  Mus.  Report,  1895;    "  North-western  Tribes  of 

Canada,"  Brit.  Assoc.  Report,  1898. 
Boyle,   D.    (and   others). — "  Ethnography   of    Canada," 

Arch.  Report,  Ontario,  1905  (with  many  references 

to  bibliography). 
Brinton,  D.  G.— "  The  American  Race,"  1891. 
Farrand,  L. — "  Basis  of  American  History,"  1904. 
Hill-Tout,  C— "  British  North  America,"  1907. 
Hodge,  P.  W.   (and  others). — "  Handbook  of  American 

Indians  north  of  Mexico,"  1907. 
Maclean,  J. — "The  Indians."  1892;    "Canadian  Savage 

Folk,"  1896. 
Nansen,  P.—"  Eskimo  Life,"  1893. 
Rink,  H.  J. — "  Tales   and   Traditions  of  the   Eskimo," 

1875. 
Whymper,  P.—"  Travels  in  Alaska,"  1868. 
"  The  American  Anthropologist  "  and  "  The  Journal  of 

American  Folk-Lore." 
"  The  Annual  Report  of  the  Director  of  the   Bureau  of 

American  Ethnology,"  1881,  etc. 


Bibliography  111 

N  The  Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition,"  Mem.  Am.  Mus. 

Nat.  Hist.,  various  vols. 
University    of     California     Publications     in     American 

Archaeology  and  Ethnology. 
Field  Columbian  Museum   (Field   Museum  of   Natural 

History)      Publications,      Anthropological     Series, 

Chicago. 


CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA. 

Brett,  W.  H.— "The  Indian  Tribes  of  Guiana,"  1868. 
Dance,  C.  D. — "Chapters  from  a  Guianese  Log-Book," 

1881. 
Gadow,  H.— "Through  Southern  Mexico,"  1908. 
Hyades,  P.,  et    Deniker,  J. — "  Mission   scientiflque   du 

Cap  Horn,"  1891. 
Im  Thurn,  E.  F. — "Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana,"  1883. 
Keane,  A.  H. — "  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies," 

1901  ;  "  South  America,"  1901. 
Lumholtz,  C. — "  Unknown  Mexico,"  1902. 
Payne,   E.   J. — "  History    of    the    New    World    called 

America,"  1892,  1899. 
Steinen,    K.     von     den. — "  Unter     den     Naturvolkern 

Zentral-Brasiliens,"  1894 


GLOSSARY. 


Animal  helper:  An  animal  seen  by  a  young  man  in  a 
trance,  which  was  supposed  to  be  a  manifestation  of 
spiritual  power,  and  thereafter  helped  him  through- 
out life. 

Animatism  (Marett)  is  a  stage  antecedent  to  animism,  in 
which  even  material  objects  are  endowed  with  life, 
or  are  regarded  as  living  because  of  their  own 
proper  powers,  or  because  they  are  self-power. 

Animism  is  the  conception  of  a  spirit  energising  objects, 
more  especially  of  "  souls  of  individual  creatures, 
capable  of  continued  existence  after  death  or  the 
destruction  of  the  body,"  and  of  "other  spirits, 
upward  to  the  rank  of  powerful  deities  "  (Tylor). 

Anthropophagy :  Man-eating,  cannibalism. 

Brachy cephalic :  Broad-headed,  having  a  cranial  or 
cephalic  index  exceeding  80. 

Caste :  A  section  of  a  larger  community  which  stands  in 
definite  relations  to  other  similar  sections,  and 
which  usually  has  an  occupational  basis  and  a 
definite  rule  of  endogamy. 

Caucasic :  A  term  applied  by  some  authors  to  Europeans 
and  to  other  peoples  possessing  more  or  less  similar 
physical  characters. 

Cephalic  index :  The  ratio  of  the  breadth  to  the  length  in 
the  head  of  a  living  subject,  the  length  being  taken 
as  100. 

Cheloid :  A  raised  scar. 

Clan :  See  sept. 


114  Glossary 

Class :  (Australia)  A  division  of  a  phratry. 

Classificatory  system  of  relationship  :  A  system  of  relation 
ship  under  which  relatives  are  grouped  mainl) 
according  to  age-status  and  sex;  for  example,  2 
mother's  sister,  mother's  brother's  wife,  father's 
brother's  wife,  and  other  women  of  that  generation 
are  called  by  the  same  term  as  the  actual  mother. 

Communal  houses  :  Large  houses  shared  by  a  community 
such  as  a  totem-sept  or  village  group. 

Couvade :  A  widely  spread  custom,  which  requires  the 
father  to  rest  or  be  in  seclusion  immediately  aftet 
the  birth  of  a  child.  This  custom  appears  to  be  the 
logical  outcome  of  a  more  or  less  rigid  series  of  food 
or  action  taboos  which  are  enforced  previous  to  the 
birth  of  the  child,  and  which  may  be  continued 
afterwards. 

Cranial  index :  The  ratio  of  the  breadth  to  the  length  in 
the  skull,  the  length  being  taken  as  100. 

Cymotrichi :  People  having  wavy  or  curly  hair.  Adj. 
cymotrichous. 

Dolichocephalic :  Narrow-headed,  having  a  cranial  or 
cephalic  index  below  75. 

Endogamy  :  The  obligation  to  marry  within  the  group. 

Exogamy  :  The  obligation  to  marry  outside  the  group. 

Family :  This  term  should  be  limited  to  the  group  of 
parents  and  children.  The  "  extended  family  "  is  a 
group  of  persona  descended  from  the  same  grand- 
father or  grandmother,  or  more  distant  progenitor 
(actual,  and  not  mythical,  as  is  often  the  case  in  the 
sept).  Occasionally,  the  extended  family  and  the 
sept  may  correspond  with  one  another. 

Father-right:  A  state  of  society  in  which  descent  is 
reckoned  through  the  father ;  the  wife,  on  marriage, 
usually  goes  to  live  permanently  with  the  husband's 


Glossary  115 

family  or  group;  authority  in  the  family  is  in  the 
father's  hands. 

'Fetish :  Any  object  credited  with  mysterious  powers 
owing  to  its  having  personality  and  will,  or  to  its 
being,  even  temporarily,  the  representative  or  habita- 
tion of  a  spirit  or  deity. 

Frizzly  :  See  ulotrichous. 

Leiotrichi :  People  having  straight,  lank  hair.  Adj. 
leiotrichous. 

Leptorrhine  :  Having  a  nose  narrow  at  the  wings. 

Local  group  :  A  community,  totemic  or  otherwise,  living 
in  an  area  over  which  it  has  collecting,  hunting, 
and  other  rights. 

Mana :  Described  on  p.  27. 

Manitou :  Described  on  p.  87. 

Matrilineal:  Where  descent  is  reckoned  through  the 
mother. 

Mesaticephalic :  Medium-headed,  having  a  cranial  or 
cephalic  index  between  75  and  80. 

Mesorrhine :  With  a  nose  of  moderate  breadth  at  the 
wings. 

Moiety  :  When  there  are  only  two  phratries,  and  they  are 
exogamous,  so  that  a  member  of  one  division  must 
marry  a  member  of  the  other,  the  divisions  are 
sometimes  termed  moieties. 

Mongolian  eye :  The  eye  is  typically  oblique,  and  shaped 
like  a  scalene  triangle ;  there  is  also  a  puffiness  of 
the  upper  eyelid,  which  turns  down  at  the  inner 
angle  of  the  narrowed  eye,  and  instead  of  being  free, 
as  in  the  ordinary  eye,  is  folded  towards  the  eyeball, 
forming  a  fixed  fold  in  front  of  the  movable  ciliary 
edge ;  this  last  becomes  invisible,  and  the  eyelashes 
are  scarcely  seen ;  also  towards  the  inner  angle  of 
the  eye,  the  eyelid  forms  a  fold  covering  more  or 


116  Glossary 

less  of  the  caruncula,  and  may  extend   below   it. 
(cf.  Deniker). 

Monogamy :  The  marriage  of  one  male  with  one  female. 

Mother-right:  A  state  of  society  in  which  there  are  two 
or  all  of  the  three  conditions :  (1)  descent  is  reckoned 
through  the  mother;  (2)  on  marriage  the  husband 
goes  to  live  with  the  wife;  (3)  authority  in  the 
family  is  in  the  hands  of  the  mother,  the  maternal 
uncles,  or  the  mother's  relatives  in  general. 

Nation :  A  complex  group  which  may  consist  of  various 
tribes  or  groups,  speaking  different  languages,  but 
united  under  a  common  government  for  external 
affairs.  The  constituents  of  a  nation  usually, 
however,  speak  the  same  language.     Cf.  p.  6. 

Orthognathous:  Having  no  projection  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  face. 

Patrilineal :  Where  descent  is  reckoned  through  the 
father. 

People :  A  community  inhabiting  any  given  area  in- 
dependent of  race.     Cf.  p.  6. 

Perineal  band:  A  band  passing  between  the  legs,  fastened 

to  a  string  round  the  hips. 
Phratry  :  A  division  of  a  tribe  or  local  community  which 

usually  includes  two  or  more   exogamous  septs  or 

clans. 
Platyrrhine:  Having  a  nose  broad  at  the  wings. 
Polyandry :  Marriage  of   one  female  with  two  or  more 

males. 
Polygamy:     Combined     polygynous     and     polyandrous 

marriage. 

Polygyny :  Marriage  of  one  male  with  two  or  more  females. 
Prognathous:  Having  the  lower  part  of  the  face  projecting. 
Pueblo:  Village;  for  Pueblo  Indians,  see  p.  88. 


Glossary  117 

Pygmy :  Applied  to  those  people  whose  average  stature 
falls  below  l-5m.  (4ft.  11  in.). 

Race  :  A  main  division  of  mankind,  the  members  of  which 
have  important  physical  characters  in  common. 

Sachem:  A  "peace-chief"  who  regulates  the  ordinary 
affairs  of  the  community,  but  does  not  lead  a 
war-party. 

Scarification :  Marking  the  skin  with  definite  scars,  a 
common  practice  of  dark-skinned  people,  such  scars 
being  lighter  in  colour  than  the  original  skin. 

Sept\  The  smallest  exogamous  section  of  a  tribe  or  local 
community. 

Shamanism :  A  cult  based  on  conceptions  similar  to  those 
of  fetishism,  the  sorcerer,  or  animistic  priest,  being 
frequently  termed  a  Shaman. 

Steatopygia :  A  large  development  of  fatty  tissue  in  the 
buttocks. 

Sulia :  Described  on  p.  83 ;  also  cf.  Manitou, 

Supernatural  helpers :  cf.  Animal  helpers. 

Taboo  (tabu) :  A  Polynesian  word  implying  separated  or 
set  apart  either  as  forbidden  or  as  sacred ;  placed 
under  ban  or  prohibition ;  consecrated  either  to 
avoidance  or  to  special  use  or  regard.     Cf.  p.  30. 

Tattooing  (tatuing) :  Puncturing  designs  in  the  skin  by 
means  of  a  sharp  pointed  instrument  which  drives 
pigment  below  the  surface  of  the  skin. 

Territorial  exogamous  group :  A  group  of  people  who 
must  marry  out  of  their  district. 

Totemism:  A  mystical  connection  uniting  certain  individ- 
uals with  a  class  of  natural  objects,  usually  all  the 
members  of  a  species  of  animal  or  a  plant ;  sometimes 
the  totem  is  an  inanimate  body.  Such  group  is  best 
termed  a  totem-sept,  but  it  has  more  frequently  been 
termed   a    totem-clan,    totem-kin,    or    totem-gens. 


118  Glossary 


f 


Frequently  there  is  practical  reciprocity  between  the  ' 
totem  and  the  human  members  of  the  totem-sept. 
All  individuals  having  the  same  totem,  even  when 
belonging  to  different  local  communities  or  tribes, 
are  regarded  as  brethren;  thus  all  septs,  of  whatever 
locality,  having  the  same  totem  are  virtually  one 
sept.  Typically  each  totem-sept  is  exogamous. 
Frequently  totem-septs  are  grouped  into  phratries. 
Often  the  members  of  a  totem-sept  are  supposed  to 
influence  the  totem  for  the  good  of  the  community, 
and  they  may  not  injure  or  eat  it  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances; there  is  thus  a  reciprocity  between 
them.  All  human  beings  having  the  same  totem 
must  help  and  never  injure  one  another. 

Tribe :  A  group  of  a  simple  kind  occupying  a  circum- 
scribed area,  having  a  common  language,  common 
government,  and  a  common  action  in  warfare.  Cf. 
p.  6. 

Ulotrichi :  People  having  hair  with  numerous,  close,  curly, 
often  interlocking  spirals.     Adj.  ulotrichous, 

Wakanda :  Described  on  p.  86. 


INDEX 

The  darker  figures  are  the  chief  references. 


Abipones      

Abyssinia      

Abyssinians 

Ackawoi        

Admiralty  Islands  .. 
Adriatic  Races 
Aetas  (Aitas) 
Africa  

British  East.. 

Central 

1  .E*£ISL      •••  •• 


PAGE 
...    100 

31,  34 
...     13 

•  •  •       v/D 

...     20 

16,  43,46 

9,  73 

31-39 

...     32 

...     31 

...     31 


Equatorial     10,  11,  32,  34 


East 


33 
..  38 
..  14 
..  13 
10,  11 
31,  37.  38 


German  West 

North 

North-east    .. 

South-west   .. 

West 

Aham (Hindu  Assamese)  65,  66 
Ahirs  ...         ...         ...         ...     59 

Ainus     8,  15  (pi.  iv),  16,  49,  50 
Aket  (Orang  Raket)  ...     73 

Alakalufs       101 

Albanians      46 

Aleutian  Islanders 80 

Algonquians 85,  87 

Alpine  Race     8,  15,40,41,  42, 

43,  44,  45,  46,  51,  61 

Altai 50 

Amaripas       95 

Amazon  ...         90,  92,  93,  94 

Amazonians  ...        92,  93-95  97 
America         ...  16,  79-102 

Central  South       19,  92 

American  Indians  ...  79-102 

— of  the  Amazon  &  Orinoco 
with  Guiana    90,  92,  93-96 


PAGE 

American  Indians  of 

Eastern  and   Southern 
Brazil      ...       90,  92,  97-99 

— of  the    Eastern    Wood- 
lands       ...  79,  87-88 

— of   the    Great    Plains 

79,  85-87 

— of     the     Lower 
Coast 

— of  the  Northern 


Pacific 

79,  83-85 
Interior 

79,  82-83 
Pacific 

79,  81-82 


— of  the  Northern 

Coast 
— of  the  Pampas  with  Tierra 

del  Fuego  90,  99-102 

— of    the    South-west    and 

Mexico    ...  79,  88-90 

Amerinds,  Central  8,  19,  89-90 

Northern 

8,  19,  79,  85-88 

North-western 

8,  19,  79,  81-85 

Southern 

8,  19,  90-102 


Anatolian 

•  •  • 

...    8,  16,  43 

Andamanese 

6,  7,  9,  71-72 

Andeans 

•  •  ■ 

90-92 

Andes  ... 

<  •  • 

90,  93,  97,  100 

Angaites 

•  •  • 

100 

Angami 

•  •  • 

...    67 

Angola 

•  •  • 

...           ...     oo 

Ankole 

•  •  ■ 

33 

Antilles 

-  >  • 

■  •  •           .  •  •     *j*y 

Apiacas 

■  •  • 

98 

Arab 

13,  14 

(pi.  iii),  34,  51 

Arabia 

,  # 

14 

Araucanians  ... 

91-92,  100 

I 


119 


120 


Index 


PAGE 

Arawaks      92,  93,  94,  95,  96,  98 

Arecuna         95 

Argentina      ...  91,  98,  100 

Arizona  90 

Armenian       14,  16 

Aryan  invaders  of  North- 
ern India  (Aryas) 

3,  51,  56,  59 
Aryans  3,  49,  50,  51,  56,  59 


Aryo-Dravidians 
Asia     

—  Central... 

—  Minor    ... 

—  North-east 

—  South-west 

—  West     ... 

"  Asiatic  Greeks  " 

Asiatics 

Assam 

Assamese 

Assyrioids 

Athapascans... 

Athwyan 

Atlantic  Slope 


1 


15 


Atlanto-AIeditcrranean  Race  42 


Atlas  Mountains 

Atorais 

Aueto 

Australia 

Australians  7,  13,  22 

Austria 

Aymaras 

-Aztecs 


Bahhans 
Bah  i  ma 
Baikal,  Lake... 
Bakai'ri 
Bakatans 
Balkan  Peninsula 

States 

Balz,  Dr.  E. 


...    60 

21,  48-78 

...      D*£ 

16,  17,  52 

...     16 

14,  61 

51,  52 

...    57 

2,  40 

65-67 

65-67 

...     14 

82-83 

49n.,  50 

19 


...     15 

•  •  •        %J*J 

...  98 
11,  13,  20 
24  (pi.  vi) 
...  43 
...  91 
89,  90 


60 
33 
17 
94 
76 
15 
45 
15 
26 


Banks  Islands 

-  Bantu    7,  10,  11,  32,  33,  38-39 

-  Basques         42 


Batin 

Beja    

Belguim 

Bengal 

Bengalis 

-Berbers  

Bhars  

Bhils  

Bhumij  

Bihar  

Bismarck  Archipelago 

Bod-pa  

Bolivia  

Borneo 
Bororos 
Botocudos 
Brahmans 


PAGE 

51,  78 

•  ••  •••         ±  d 

•  •  •  •  •  •  *T  — ^ 

60,  61,  64,  65 
66 


Brazil 

Brazil,  Indians  of 

British  Isles  - 

Broad-headed     people 
India        


...    34 

...    59 

...  62 

65 

...    60 

...     12 

...  51 

92,  98 

2,  14,  76-78 

•  >••    yy 

19,  97 

59,  60 


90,  92,  93,  94,  97-99 
...  97 
...    41 


Buganda 
Bulgars 
Burma 
Burmans 
Burmese 
Buryats 
"Bushmen 

6,  7,  10,  31,  32,  33,  34-35 


of 

...    60 

•  •  •  •  %JkJ 

18,  45 
.  67,  68-70 
68,  69,  70 
.65,  68-70 

...     17 


Caddoan        85 

Cainguas        98 

Calchaquis     91 

California       79,  84 

Californians S3-84 

Lower 84 

Cameroons 11 

Canarcse        60,  61 

Cape  Colony 32,  38 

Caribs  92,  93-94,  95,  96,  98 

—  Black  96 

—  Yellow  96 

Carinya  (true  Carib)          ...    95 
Caspian  17 


Index 


121 


"  Caucasic  features 

Peoples 

Celebes 

"Celto-Slavic" 

Cevenole 

Ceyion 

Chamars 

Chauhans 

Cheremiss 

Cherokee 

Chibchas 

Chimu  (Trujillo) 

China,  North-west 

—  South 

—  South-west 
Chinese     S,  18  (pi. 
Chingpaw 
Chingpos 
Chiquitos 
Chiriguanos  ... 
Chota  Nagpur 
Chukchis 

Coast 

Civaros 
Cocamas 

Codrington,  Dr.  R 
Comanche 
Congo 
Coorgs 

Cordilleras  see  An 
Cro-Magnon  ... 
Crooke,  W.    ... 
Cuzco  ... 
Cymotrichi    ... 


PAGE 

...    70 

...     15 

..   13,  51,  78 

15 

..    8,  16,  43 

6,  12,  62,  63 

...   60 

...    59 

...    18 

...    88 

90-91 

...    91 

...    57 

50,  67 

...    70 

v),  50,  51,  78 

..67,  69-70 

..67,  69-70 

...     98 

98 

64 

16,  54,  55 

•  ■  •  •  •       DO 

•  •          *  •  •  y  o 

93 

H.       ...  28 
86 

31,38 
..60,  61-62 
des 

...    42 

...    57 

...    91 

7,  12-16 


Dasyus  3,  56 

Dayaks,  Land  76 

Sea  (I  ban)  77,  78 

Deccan  ...  12,  13,  56,  60,  62 

Dene 82-83 

Deniker,  Dr.  J. 

15,  18,  19,  42,  43,  44,  46,  90,  91 

Denmark        41 

Dinaric  Race...  16,43.  46 


PAGE 

Dolichocephalic  peoples  of 

Northern  Asia 49 

Dominica 
Dravidians 


Dru-pa 
Dusun 


•  ••  •••  •••         *I70 

3,  7,  13,  15,  51,  60, 
61,  62,  63,  64,  65 

•  ••  ■••  Ml  Ol 

•••  •••  •••     / o 


East  Brazilians       92 

East  Indian  Archipelago 

14,  18,  21,  51,  76 
Easter  Island  ...         14,  129 

Egypt 33 

Egyptians,     Ancient      and 


Modern 
Ennema 
Ephthalites   .., 
-Eskimo 

Esthonians  ... 
Ethiopians  ... 
Europe 

East... 

North 

Europeans     ... 


...     2,  13,  15 

100 

5S 

2,  8,  18-19,  79, 
80-81  (pi.  ix) 

7,  13 
16,  18,  40-47 

■  •  •  •  •  •         *J  — 

2,  15 
40-47 


Farrand,  Prof.  L    87 

Fiji       12,  20,  26 

Fijian 2 

Finno-Ugrian  43,  45,  49,  50 

Finns 18,  45 

Flemings        42 

Flower,  Sir  W.  H 70 

Foxes 87 

France 15,  41-42 

France,    prehistoric    cave- 
dwellers  in        lCn. 

Fuegians       101-102 

Fulah 13,  33 

Furness,  Dr.  W.  H.  ...    67 

Further  India  ...         14,  18 


122 


Index 


Galla 

Garos  ... 
Gauchos 
Gchlots 

Germans,  Ancient 
Germany 

vJv_o  •  ■  •  • « • 

Gilyaks 

Gobi    

Gold     

Goncis... 

Gran  Chaco  ... 

Greece 

Greenland 

Guatemala     ... 

Guaycuru 

Guiana 

Guiana,  Indians  of 

Guinea  Coast 

Gujars 

Gupta  Empire 

Gurjaras 


92, 


.90,  93, 


PAGE 

13,  33 
...    67 

...  100 

•  •  •         i  ' .  ' 

...  39 

...  43 

93,  97,  98 
16,  54 
...  17 
...  16 
...  59 

99,  100 
40,  46 
...  2 
...  90 
...  100 

94,  95,  97 
95-96 
...  11 
58,  59 
58,  61 
58,  59 


7,  10,  11,  13; 


Haida 

Hamites 

Hausas 

Hawaii  

Herders  on  the  Steppes 

on  the  Tundra 

Himalayas     ...  15 

Himalayans 

Himyaritic     

Hindus  

Hindustan     

Hittite  

Hiung-nu       

X  X  \J  •••  •••  ••• 

Hoa 

Homo  Mcditcrrancnsis 

Hottentots 

7,  10-11,31,  32, 

Hunas 

Hungary        

Huns,  White 
Hurons  


...    81 

32,  33 

...    34 

14,  29 

...   53 

...   54 

,  51,  56 

8,  18 

...    34 

•  •  •     r>.  / 

...    60 

14,  16 

50,  57 

...    65 

...    58 

...    15 

35-36 
. . .  5o 
...  43 
..  58 
...    88 


ban  (Sea  Dayaks) 

berians 

llyrian 

ncas 

ndia 21, 

—    South  ... 
ndies,  West... 
ndo-Afghans 
ndo- Aryans 
ndo-China    ... 
ndo-Chinese 


ndo-Javanese 
ndonesians 

.8,  14,21, 
rani  an 
reland 
roquois 

rulas  

shmaelite 
taly     


8,  1 
51 


50, 


PAGE 

77,78 

•  ••  •••         1  \J 

46 

91 

51,  52,  56-65 
63,  64 

96 

...    8,  13-14 

•  •  •  •  •  •         \J\j 

...  18,  68,  70 
4,  18,  21,  50, 
,  65-70,  74-78 

•  ••  •••        /  o 

51,  65,  68,  76 

■  •■  •••        ~t  •■) 

■••  •••         ii 

87-88 
7,  12 

•  • *  •  ■  *       0~t 

•  •  •  •••  *T  O 


Jacunda 

•  •  • 

...    98 

Jakuns  (" 

Savage 

Malay 

") 

74-75 

Jamaica 

•  •  • 

... 

...    96 

Japanese 

•  •  • 

•  •  « 

...    50 

Jats 

•  •  • 

58-59 

Jeberos 

-  -  • 

•  •  • 

...    95 

Jevaros 

•  •  • 

... 

...    95 

Jews    ... 

... 

6,  14 

Johnston, 

Sir  Harry 

^9 
...      ^ » — 

Jones,  W. 

. . . 

•  •  • 

...    87 

Juangs 

•  ■  • 

...    65 

Jungle  Tribes  of  the  Dcccan 

7, 

12,  62 

Kachin 

•  •  • 

67, 

69-70 

Kadirs 

•  •  • 

*  •  • 

7,  12 

Kadphises 

■  •  • 

... 

...    57 

Kakhycn 

•  •  • 

...  67, 

69-70 

Kaigguas 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

...  98 

Kalabit 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

...    76 

Index 


123 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Kalahari 

•  •  •                  • 

10,  31 

Littoral  Race 

4° 

Kaiamatan 

5     •     •                                             • 

...    77 

Livonians 

18 

Kalinga 

•    •    •                                             • 

63,  68 

Lusheis 

66 

Kalmuks 

•     •    •                                             • 

17,  44 

Kamayuras 

•    •    •                                             • 

...    98 

Kamchadalcs 

...     16 

Kamjangs 

•    •    •                                             • 

...    66 

Macusi 

•  •   .                                B  »  •              X/O 

Kanauj 

•    •    •                                           •    i 

...    58 

Madrasi 

63 

Karayas 
Karelians 

•    •    •                                             • 

98-99 

Magyars 

18,  43 

•    •    •                                             • 

...  45 

Maidu 

84 

Karens 

•    •    •                                             • 

...  70 

Malabar 

63,  64 

Karifs 

...    96 

Malanau 

76 

Kashgaria 

•    •    •                                             • 

...     17 

Malay  Peninsula 

Kazaks 

-                                             _ 

...     17 

9,  12 

,  72,  74-76,  78 

Keane,  Prof 

A.  H. 

Malayan  Archipel; 

igo         ...    67 

15,  11 

3,  51,  70,  75 

Malays         18,  72, 

74-76,  77,  78 

Kennedy,  J. 

•  •  •                • 

...    59 

"   —      Savage"  (Jakun)  ...  74 

Kenyan- Kay 

an 

...  77 

Malekula 

27 

Khalkas 

•  •  •                • 

17,  53 

Manchu- Koreans 

48 

Khamtis 

•  •  •                •  i 

...    66 

-Manchus 

...  16,  17,  49 

Khasis 

■  ••                • « 

...  66 

Manipuri 

...    65 

Khmer 

*  •  •                 •  • 

68,  69 

Man-tse 

50,  67 

Khoikhoi 

•  •  •                (i 

...    35 

■-Maori,    pi.    vii,    p 

28,    cf. 

Khuai 

•  •  •                • 

...    34 

Polynesians 

Kiowans 

••■                • 

...    85 

Mapu-che 

•  ••                •■•       *_'  A 

Kirghiz 

•    *  •                                •! 

17,  45 

Marathas  (Mahrattas) 

Klings 

•  ■••                                •  1 

63,  68 

Marquesas     ... 

14 

Kols     ... 

•  •  •                                • 

59 

Masai 

13,  33 

Koreans 

•  •  • 

.    8,  17,50 

Matacos 

100 

Koryaks 

•  •   I                                 ■ 

16,  54 

Matto  Grosso 

98 

Kublai  Khan 

70 

Mauhes 

9S 

Kukis  ... 

•   •  •                                • 

..65,  66,  67 

-Maya   ... 

89,  90 

Kunbi  or  Ku 

rmi 

61 

Mediterranean 

15,  31 

Kurumbas 

•  •  •                • 

7,  12 

Mediterranean  Race 

Kushan 

•  •  •                • 

57,  58 

8,  15,  40,  41, 

42,  46,  47,  52 

Kwakiutl 

•  •  •                         •  i 

81,  82 

Meithis 
Melanesia 

...    65 

11,  20,  2).    29 

Melanesian  Archipelago    20,  21 

"Melanesians  ...  6, 

7,  12,20,  21, 

Lamuts 

«  •  •                        • 

•         ...     16 

24-2 

Lapps 

18,4 

L,  45,  52,  55 

Mergui  Archipelag 

;o            ...    68 

Leiotrichi 

•  «  •                  • 

.    8,  16-19 

Mexico 

79,  84,  89-90 

Lena    ... 

•  •  •                 • 

...     17 

—        New 

90 

Lenguas 

•  •  •                 • 

...  100 

Micronesia     ... 

20 

Letto -Lithuanians . 

...  44 

Micronesians... 

22 

Libyans 

•  •  •                 • 

15 

Miranhas 

93,  04 

Ligurians 

•  •  •                 • 

15 

Mishmis 

67 

121 


I\DEX 


PAGli 

Misteca  89 

Molu-chc        92 

Mon      68,  69 

Mongolo-Draviuians  ...    65 

Mongols       8,  17,  41,  44,  48,  70 

Northern 48 

Oceanic     18 

Southern  ...         18,  50 
(cf.  Indo-Chinese) 


Mon-Khmcr 

languages 

Morgan,  L.  H. 
Moszkowski,  M. 

M undas  

Munda-speaking  peoples 

Mundurukus 

M  units  

Muyscas         


73, 


68 
68 
88 
7S 
...  65 
...  64 
...  98 
14,  76 
90-91 


56,  65,  66-67 
89,  90 

•  •  *  •  •  *         *y\J 

• . .  ...    Oo 


Naga 

Nahua 

Nahuatlaca    ... 
Nayars 
'-Negrilloes 

6,  7,  9-10,  32,  34  (pi.  viii) 

-Negritoes  of  Asia      7,  9,  20,  21, 

51,  70-73,  74,  78 

of  the  Philippines 

(Aetas)  9,  73 

2,  4,  6,  7,  11,  13,  32, 

33,  36-38,  70,  96 

Nilotic        

Oceanic      

Neolithic     inhabitants      of 

Western  Europe 

Netherlands  

New  Britain 
New  Caledonia 
New  Guinea 

11,12,  20,  21,  2  1,  25,  26,  27 


Negroes 


25, 


12,  20, 


11 

20 

15 
43 
27 
27 


PAGE 

Nordics,  sec  T\'orthern  Race 
Northern  Race       8,  15,  40,  41, 
42,  43,  44,  46,  49 
Norway  41 


—  Hebrides 

—  Zealand 
Niam  Niam    , 
Nigritian 
Nile  Valley     , 


25,  26,  27 
14,  26 
...  13 
...  11 
...     11 


Oceania 
Oghuz 
Ojibwa 
Otnaguas 

Onas 

Orang  Bukit  ... 

—  Laut    ... 

—  Malayu 

—  Raket  (Meet). 
Oriental  Race 
Orinoco 
Orochons 
Osmanli 
Ostyaks 

Otomi 


90, 


20-30 
...  48 
87,  88 
93 
100 
74 
74-75 
75 
73 
44 
93,  95 
16 
17 
18,  55 
.. .     89 


Pacific  Slope... 

Pah  lavas 

Palajasiatics  ... 

Pala^o-Amerinds 

Palaung 

Pampas 

Pampeans 

Pano    

Papuans    6,  7,  11 


Paraguay 


Indians  of 
River 


•  ••  •••  Iks 

57 

8,  15,  16,48 

8,  19 

...  ...     68 

90,  99,  100 

92,  99-101 

93,  94 

(pl.ii),  12,  13. 

20,  21,  24-28 

97,  98 


Parercans  18,  50,  cf.  Indo 
Chinese 

Parihar  Rajputs       

Patagonia      


97 
92 


59 
.  100 
HPatagonians  ...     8,  19,  100-101 

N) 


Pawnee 
Pay ag uas 
Pelasgians 


99, 
00- 

(Pl 
...85,  86-87 

100 

•  •*  •••      10 


Index 


125 


PAGE 


51,  57 
...    66 

...     9,  73,  78 

92 

92 

44 

44 

44 

20,  21,  28,  29 


Phakis 

Philippines    ... 
Picun-che 
Plata,  Rio  de  la 
Poland 

Poles 

Polesians 
Polynesia 
Polynesians 

8,  14,  21,  22  (pi.  vii),  28-30 

Prabhus  61 

Pre-Dravidians       7,12-13,20, 

22-24,  51,  62,  74,  78 

Pre -Semitic   ...         ...         ...    52 

Proto- Finns  ...         ...         ...    50 

Proto-Malays 

8,'l4,  18,  21,  51,  68,  76 

Proto-Polyneaians 21 

Pueblo  Indians  88-89,  90 

Puel-che         92,  100 

Puen-che        92 

Punan  2,  76 

Punjab  ...        56,  57,  58,  59 

Pygmies       3,  6,  7,  9-10,  20,  21, 

32,  34,  51,  70-73,  74,  78 


Quichuas 


90,  91 


Sabasan 

Sahara 

St.  Vincent 
-Sakai   ... 

Sakas  ... 

Salish 

Samoa 

'Samoan 

Samoyads 

San      

San  Domingo 

Sanapanas 

Sarasin,  Dr.  F. 

Sardinia 

Scandinavia  ... 
-Scotland 

Scythian 

Se,Sek 

Selung 

Sema 

Semang 

Semites 

Senoi  .. 

Seri 

Shahaptians  . 

Shan    ... 

Sharras 

Shoshoneans... 

Siamese-Chinese 

Siberians,  Eastern 
Western 


Rajputana      58,  59 

Rajputs         14,  58-59,  60,  61,  62 


Risley,  Sir  H.  H. 
Rivers,  Dr.  W.  H 
Roumanians  ... 
Russia... 

Russians,  Great 

Little 

White 


PAGE 

•  •  •  •  •  •       0"x 

•  •  •  O  1  *    0"i 

...     .    ...    96 

7,  12-13,  51,  74 

57 

...  ...   83 

14,  29 

2 

18,  -15,  54,  55 

■  .  ■  .  •  •        0"x 


...  58,  60,  65 

R 64 

45 

...  18,  44-45 
44 
44 

•  « •  ♦ » »     ri  Jfc 


96 

100 

78 

40 

18,  41 

40,  41 

60,  63 

...  ...  ...        O  / 

...  ...  .,.   68 

67 

...  7,  9,  72-73,  74 
2,  8,  13,  14,  15.  34,  5  2 

74 

84-85 

34 

65,  66,  63,  70 
17 


Singphos 

Sioux 

Slav 

Smith,  Vincent  A 

Solankis 

Solomon  Islands 

Somali 

Somaliland     ... 

Spain 

Sudan  ... 

-Sudanese,  Eastern,  Western  11 

Sudras  59,  63 

Sumatra         9,  12,  51,  73,  75,  78 

Sumers  ...    52 

Sweden  40,  41 

Switzerland 42 


...  S4 
63,  70 
...  16 
...   18 

67 

...  85-86,  87 

45,  46 

58,  59 

•  ••  •  •  •       D*J 

24,  25,  27,  28 
13 

•  •■  •••     oo 

11,  32,  34 


126 


Index 


Tacunas 

i  at       ...         ... 

Talaing 
Talhuets 

Tamil 

Tanganyika   ... 
Tanguts 
Tapuyas 
Tarasco 
Tarumas 
Tasmania 
Tasmanians  ... 
Tatars 

—  Crimean 

—  Volga... 
Tavastians  ... 
Tchuel-che     ... 

Telegu 

Telinga 
Teutonic  Race 
Tibetans 
Tibeto-Burmans 
Tierra  del  Fuego  90 
Titicaca,Lake 
Thurston,  E. 
Tlingit         •    ... 
Toalas 
Tobas  ... 

Todas  

Toltecs 

Tonga  

Toro     

Torres  Islands 

—  Straits 
Trumai 
Tsimshian 
Tubas  ... 
Tungus  8,  16,  17,  48,  49,  54 
Tupi  (Tupi-Guarani)  92,  93,  98 
Tupis,  Eastern  or  Guarani      98 

—  Western        98 

Turanians       49n.,50 

Turkey  17 

Turki      8,  17,  41,  4%  46,  48,  49, 

50,  51,  52,  57 

Turkistan,  Chinese...  17,  50 

Russian  ...         ...     17 


PAGE 

.. .     98 

66,  68,  70 

68 

...  100 

63 

•  • .     oZ 

...    51 

92,  97 

...    89 

...    95 

...     11 

...    20 

17,  58 

...    45 

...    45 

45 

100-101 

...  63 

63,  68 

...   15 

8,  18,  51 

65,  68,  69 

99,  100,  101 

...    91 

...    63 

...    81 

7,  13,  78 

...  100 

...   64 

89,  90 

14,  29 

33 

27 

28 

99 

81 

18 


VI 

Turkomans 17, 

Turks  ...        46. 

Uganda  31,  32, 

Ughuz  

Ugrian  Finns  

Ugrians         8,  17-18,  41,  45, 

Ugro-Finns 

Uigurs  (Uighurs)     ...         17, 

Ukits 

Ulotrichi        6,  7,  9- 

United  Provinces  (India)  ... 

Unyoro  

Ural-Altaians8, 15, 16-18,41, 

45,46,  48,  49,  50,  51,  52-55, 

Uruguay 

Uzbegs 

Vedas  ... 

-Veddas  ...        7,  12,  62, 

Vistulian  Race 
Voguls 
Votyaks 

Wa      ... 

Walloons 
Wapiana 
Warrau 
Wusuns 
Wilkinson,  R.  J. 

Xingu  River 

Yahgans 

Yakuts 

Yavanas 

Ye-the 

Yeniseians 

Yucatan 

Yueh-chi 

Yukaghirs 

Yuman 

Yuncas 

Yurunas 

Zambezi 
Zandch 
Zaparos 
Zapotcca 

ALllU       ...  ...  ...  OC>, 

Zungaria 


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